The Thracians: Ancient Balkan Nation's Influence on European and Asian Civilizations

The Thracians, an Indo-European-speaking people, inhabited large parts of Southeast Europe, primarily in modern-day Bulgaria, Romania, and northern Greece. Their origins are obscure, but they are believed to have descended from a mixture of Proto-Indo-Europeans and Early European Farmers. Around the 5th millennium BC, various indigenous groups in the eastern Balkans were collectively identified by the Greeks as Thracians. Thracian culture began to take shape during the early Bronze Age, flourishing in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC and developing into distinct groups like the Getae and Dacians.

Origins and Early Development

The origin of the name 'Thracians' remains uncertain, with theories ranging from Greek mythology to various historical sources. Despite this ambiguity, it is clear that the Thracians had a deep-rooted presence in the Balkans, influencing regions that correspond to modern-day Romania, northern Greece, and Bulgaria. Archaeological evidence suggests that Thracian culture began to take shape during the early periods of human settlement in these areas. The Thracians were known for their strong cultural interactions with neighboring peoples, engaging in frequent trade and cultural exchanges that enriched their own society.

Interaction with Persians and Greeks

Thracians experienced significant cultural influences during Persian rule, particularly in their artifacts. However, coastal Thracians resisted Persian dominance and maintained trade links with the Greeks, leading to rich cultural exchanges. Greek historians often described Thracians as warlike and uncivilized, yet noted their sophisticated poetry and music. Thracian warriors were highly valued as mercenaries by both Greeks and Romans.

Rise of Thracian Elites and State Formation

In the 5th century BC, the Thracian elites, controlling vital resources like grain and minerals, consolidated power to form the Odrysian Kingdom. Seuthes the First played a significant role in integrating the kingdom’s economy and enhancing royal wealth. Despite this, the Thracians remained fragmented, which Greek and Roman sources noted as a reason for their inability to establish lasting political unity. However, they achieved significant military feats and territorial expansion during this period.

Macedonian Conquest and Thracian Independence

The Thracians faced subjugation by Philip of Macedon, becoming a vassal state. After Alexander the Great's death, they regained independence under the leadership of Seuthes III, with support from northern allies. This period of independence was marked by internal strife and external threats, particularly from neighboring tribes and empires.

One Of The Most Amazing Projects Ever: The Reviving Of The Submerged Ancient Thracian City Of Seuthopolis

Roman Conquest and Integration

Thracians were gradually incorporated into the Roman Empire in the mid-2nd century BC. Despite the Romanization of urban areas and infrastructure development, rural Thracians retained their indigenous culture and language for an extended period. The Thracians played a significant role in Roman military campaigns, notably the rebellion led by Spartacus, a Thracian gladiator.

Cultural and Religious Contributions

Thracian culture was rich and multifaceted, heavily influenced by interactions with Greeks, Persians, Scythians, and Celts. Their polytheistic religion included deities like Zalmoxis and Sabazios, with elements of Greek mythology. Thracian society was noted for its practice of tattooing and elaborate burial customs. Despite being perceived as barbarians by Greeks and Romans, the Thracians had a profound cultural impact, particularly in poetry and music.

God Dionysus In Mycenaean Linear B Script: Confirmation Of Dionysus's Early Worship In Mycenean Greece

Thracian Legacy and Archaeological Wonders

The Thracians made significant contributions to the cultural mosaic of the Balkans and the Eastern Mediterranean. During the late antique period, they were situated near Constantinople, the new capital of the Roman Empire, and experienced significant political and cultural shifts. The adoption of Christianity led to the construction of numerous churches in Thracian provinces, fostering urbanization and the Christianization of the region.

Archaeological findings have uncovered impressive Thracian artifacts, including ornate jewelry, weapons, and tombs, highlighting their craftsmanship and artistic achievements. These discoveries provide insight into the sophisticated nature of Thracian society, countering the ancient portrayals of them as primitive barbarians.

The Thracians were a formidable and influential ancient nation whose cultural and historical impact resonates through the ages. From their early developments and interactions with powerful neighbors to their integration into the Roman Empire, the Thracians exemplify a rich and dynamic chapter in the history of European and Asian civilizations. Their legacy, preserved through impressive archaeological finds and historical records, continues to fascinate scholars and enrich our understanding of the ancient world.

The Mysterious Masked Figurines of the Ancient Vinča Culture: An Exploration into the World of Neolithic Triangle-Shaped Heads

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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In the heart of Southeastern Europe, the Neolithic Vinča culture, flourishing between 5700 and 4500 BC, has long fascinated historians and archaeologists with its advanced society, evident through its impressive artifacts, settlement structures, and symbolic expressions. Among the most enigmatic remnants of this culture are the anthropomorphic figurines, particularly those with stylized faces resembling masks. The triangular or pentagonal-shaped heads of these figurines have sparked debates and theories regarding their significance, leading to an intriguing exploration of prehistoric beliefs and practices.

Theoretical Foundations and Archaeological Discoveries

The explicit mask at the Uivar site.

Cristian Roman from the University Lucian Blaga, Sibiu, in his article entitled "Tipologia Măştii şi a Ochilor în Plastica Antropomorfă Vinčiană," ventures into a comprehensive analysis of these mask-like representations. Roman postulates that the evolution in the shapes of these masks may reflect shifts in religious beliefs or trends within the Vinča society. The common interpretation among scholars that these peculiar facial designs are indeed masks suggests a profound symbolic or ritualistic significance rather than mere artistic expressions.

Further bolstering this theory is the discovery of an explicit mask at the Uivar site, detailed in the works of Wolfram Schier and subsequently by Cornelia-Magda Lazarovici and Gheorghe-Corneliu Lazarovici. These findings illuminate the practical and ceremonial use of masks within the Vinča culture, potentially as part of ritualistic attire or spiritual practices.

The Vidovdanka: A Case Study in Vinča Figurative Art

The so-called "Vidovdanka," one of the most beautiful anthropomorphic figurines of Vinča culture, is also one of the biggest, at 30.6 cm high. 

Among the most compelling pieces is the "Vidovdanka," a large polished clay figurine discovered on Vidovdan in 1930 at the Vinča-Belo Brdo site near Belgrade. This figurine, standing at 30.6 cm tall, depicts a female form with distinctly emphasized facial features, alongside a pronounced belly and gluteus, marking it as one of the culture's most detailed and expressive works. The Vidovdanka, housed within the archaeological collection of the Faculty of Philosophy in Belgrade, showcases the sophisticated level of craftsmanship and the possible spiritual or societal roles these figures represented.

Interpretations and Implications

The question remains: how can we ascertain that these faces were intended as masks and not simply stylistic or abstract representations of human features? The lack of clear demarcation between the face and the mask in most figurines complicates interpretations. However, the explicit depiction of a figure holding a mask at the Liubcova site, as analyzed by Adele Änggård, suggests a deliberate use and recognition of masks within the Vinča culture. This evidence, coupled with a comparative analysis of contemporaneous Neolithic cultures, hints at a complex socio-religious framework where masks played an integral role.

Carved figure with mask from Liubcova site. In the left hand, the figure is holding a mask. In the right hand, it's holding a jug (of beer, perhaps?). From "Figurines as multiple art - Studying the shape and forms of Neolithic Statuettes" by Adele Änggård.

The mysterious masked figures of the Vinča culture serve as a window into the spiritual and daily lives of one of Europe's earliest civilizations. While the exact meanings and uses of these masks may never be fully understood, they undeniably represent a rich tradition of symbolic expression and ceremonial practice. As we delve deeper into the Vinča culture's artifacts and settlements, we continue to unravel the intricate tapestry of human history, reminding us of our shared heritage and the enduring power of cultural expression. The exploration of these ancient masks not only enriches our understanding of the Vinča people but also invites reflection on the universal human inclination towards creativity, ritual, and the mystical.

Vinča Houses – Hearth, Economy, and Society: Foundations of a Prehistoric Civilization

In the heart of Southeastern Europe, remnants of the Vinča culture whisper tales of a prehistoric society that thrived over 7,000 years ago. Their material legacy, particularly the domestic structures, offers a remarkable lens through which we can glimpse their way of life, economic foundations, and social organization. This article delves into the hearth of the Vinča houses, exploring their role in the economy and the broader society of one of Europe's first civilizations.

The Hearth of the Home

Central to any Vinča house was the hearth, a feature that transcended its practical use for warmth and cooking. In the archaeological record, hearths and ovens are found within the remnants of these ancient homes, some strategically placed on upper floors, suggesting multi-level buildings that maximized living space and functionality. The hearth served as a social hub, a gathering place for family and community, where food was prepared and shared, stories were told, and social bonds were reinforced.

Fireplaces within or adjacent to Vinča houses also signify the technical knowledge of their builders. These structures had to ensure the efficient expulsion of smoke and maintain the structural integrity of the dwelling, indicative of advanced construction techniques and an understanding of materials.

The Economy Built Within Four Walls

The design and contents of their homes seem to indicate a complex and varied economy for the Vina. Large dwellings, some up to 200 square meters, suggest the accumulation of goods and storage capabilities, pointing towards surplus production and a level of wealth distribution. The presence of stone foundations and plastered walls in these large structures could denote a social hierarchy, with more affluent families investing in sturdier, more elaborate homes.

Tools and artifacts found within these homes paint a picture of a domestic economy rooted in agriculture, animal husbandry, and craftsmanship. Paved or wooden flooring indicates a concern for cleanliness and perhaps food storage and preparation. This careful construction of living spaces hints at a society where domestic activities played a significant role in sustaining and advancing the community.

Social Structure Enclosed in Clay and Timber

The arrangement of Vinča houses in rows and groups is perhaps one of the most telling features of their society. It suggests a planned settlement where communal life was paramount. The grouping of houses could indicate extended family living or craft specialization within certain areas of the settlement, providing early evidence of social stratification and an organized workforce.

Mali Dunav reconstruction

The architecture of Vinča homes reflects more than mere shelter; it symbolizes the society's complexity. The size and quality of the structures, the communal arrangement, and the sophisticated construction techniques speak to a society that valued social organization, family ties, and economic prosperity.

Unearthing Foundations of European Prehistory

The Vinča houses are more than just ancient architecture; they are a testament to a civilization's heart, economy, and societal structure. As archaeologists uncover layers of the past, the stories encapsulated within these prehistoric walls continue to shape our understanding of the ingenuity and complexity of early European societies. Through the silent testimony of clay, timber, and hearth, the Vinča culture's spirit endures, offering profound insights into the dawn of civilization on the European continent.

Europe's First Civilization: Unraveling the Mysteries of the Vinča Culture

The Vinča culture, emerging over 8,000 years ago during the Neolithic period in Southeastern Europe, represents what many consider to be Europe's first civilization. This civilization, flourishing between 5400 BC and 4500 BC, marked a significant leap in societal development, showcasing advanced farming, metalworking, and potentially the inception of writing, long before the rise of civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt.

The Dawn of a New Era in the Balkans

In the fertile lands of the Central Balkans, the Vinča culture emerged as a beacon of Neolithic innovation. Named after a site near Belgrade where it was first discovered, this culture covered a vast portion of the Balkans. The Vinča people, descending from a blend of Anatolian farmers and European hunter-gatherers, established large, densely populated settlements that thrived for centuries. Their society was predominantly agrarian, valuing cattle highly but also venturing into the first known instances of metalworking in Europe. The sophistication of their societal structures suggests they were not just farmers but potentially warriors and traders, underpinning a complex social organization.

Technological Prowess and Cultural Complexity

The technologically advanced Neolithic society of the Vinca culture is what sets it apart. Their settlements were not only large and densely populated but also fortified, indicating a society conscious of defense and possibly engaged in conflicts with neighboring societies. These communities were strategically located near rivers, facilitating trade and access to natural resources. The Vinča people were adept in craft specialization, producing high-quality goods, including unique ritual ceramic figurines that bore intricate details of clothing, jewelry, and masks, hinting at a rich religious life.

A Leap into Metallurgy and Possible Writing

One of the most fascinating aspects of the Vinča culture is their potential development of metalworking and mining, predating the Sumerians' achievements by a millennium. They mined copper ores, laying the groundwork for metallurgy, and produced artifacts that might represent the world's earliest form of writing. This development suggests the Vinča culture could have established a class of metalworkers who wielded significant societal influence.

Symbols, Conflict, and Social Stratification

The symbols used by the Vinča culture, including abstract pictograms and hash marks, are subject to debate regarding their meaning. They could have served for trade, accounting, or ritual purposes. The extensive defenses around their settlements underscore a society prepared for conflict, further separating them from neighboring groups. Artifacts discovered, possibly gaming pieces or ritual items, along with evidence of weapons, indicate a society with clear social stratification and hierarchy.

The End of an Era

Around 4,500 to 4,400 BC, the hallmark lifestyle, pottery, figurines, and settlements of the Vinča culture vanished from the archaeological record. The reasons behind this decline remain a subject of speculation among historians and archaeologists. However, the cultural and technological advancements of the Vinča people undeniably influenced subsequent societies, including those along the Black Sea coast, embedding the Vinča culture as a pivotal chapter in Europe's prehistoric narrative.

In conclusion, the Vinča culture stands as a testament to the ingenuity and complexity of Europe's Neolithic societies. With their advanced agricultural practices, metalworking skills, and the possible inception of writing, the Vinča people laid the groundwork for the future civilizations that would rise across Europe, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to intrigue and inspire scholars and historians today.

The Sophisticated Lost Civilization of Old Europe

Europe's Lost Golden Civilization: Advanced Technology, Intricate Artifacts, and Mysterious Collapse

In the vast tapestry of human history, few civilizations evoke as much intrigue and awe as Old Europe, a sophisticated and advanced civilization that predated the illustrious cultures of Mesopotamia and Egypt. This article delves into the enigmatic world of Old Europe, exploring its technological prowess, artistic richness, and the enigmatic circumstances surrounding its sudden collapse.

Preceding Ancient Giants

Old Europe emerged as a beacon of civilization well before the rise of the famed Mesopotamian and Egyptian cultures. This period, flourishing mainly in the southeast of Europe, notably in the Lower Danube Valley, demonstrated remarkable advancements in political structure, technological innovation, and ideological complexity. Metalworkers of Old Europe were particularly advanced, creating a staggering array of metal artifacts that still impress contemporary scholars.

Artistic Expressions and Material Wealth

A hallmark of Old Europe's sophistication was its ornamental adornments, signaling not just wealth but also a high degree of artistic expression. The civilization boasted extensive trade networks for procuring precious materials like copper, gold, and shells. Intriguingly, the prevalence of female goddess figurines in their artistic oeuvre has sparked debates among historians about the potential influence of women in Old Europe's society.

The Mysterious Collapse

Despite its advancements, Old Europe was not immune to decline. This civilization, which had substantial homes, a wide range of pottery, and figurines connected to domestic rituals, abruptly ended. The period of prosperity, spanning from the fifth to the first half of the fourth millennia BC, came to an abrupt end with over 600 settlements being abandoned and set ablaze. This catastrophe led to a widespread dispersal of the population and a shift towards a more nomadic lifestyle.

STEPPE Influence?

The cultural elements of Europe have deep roots in the Steppe nomadic horse riders. These nomads migrated across Eurasia from roughly 4,000 to 1,000 BCE. Their movements may coincide with Old Europe's collapse, leading to speculation about the extent of their influence on the civilization's decline.

Migration and Sacred Practices

Notably, there was a significant migration of European mobile herders to the Lower Danube Valley around the time of Old Europe's decline. Furthermore, the civilization had unique practices concerning its dwellings. It was common practice to set houses on fire purposefully, perhaps as part of rituals performed after the passing of a revered elder or after a certain number of generations. This practice contributed to the abandonment of numerous settlements approximately 5,400 years ago.

Factors Behind the Decline

The decline of Old Europe was likely the result of multiple intertwined factors. Climate change, resource conflicts, and immigration played significant roles. Additionally, the spread of diseases like the Black Death and the influence of Steppe cultures were critical in shaping the civilization's fate.

The Bell Beaker Connection and Britain's Genetic Shift

An intriguing aspect of this period is the arrival of the Bell Beaker culture, which brought a sudden genetic change to Britain. This transition remains a mystery, with scholars striving to understand the reasons behind this significant genetic shift and population decline.

The civilization of Old Europe stands as a testament to the complexities and vulnerabilities of human societies. Its advanced technology, intricate artifacts, and the enigmatic nature of its collapse continue to captivate historians and archaeologists alike. As we uncover more about this lost civilization, we gain deeper insights into the enduring legacies of ancient societies and the myriad factors that shape their destinies.

The Vinča Script and the Quest for the World's Oldest Writing System

The Vinča script, often mentioned in discussions about the origins of writing, represents a fascinating and enigmatic chapter in the history of human communication. This article aims to explore the Vinča script in depth, examining its history, characteristics, and the ongoing debate over its status as potentially one of the oldest forms of writing.

Historical Context

The Vinča culture, named after a village near Belgrade where significant artifacts were first discovered, thrived in the Balkans, particularly in present-day Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Greece, during the Neolithic era, around 5500 to 4500 BCE. Significant advancements in agriculture, the domestication of animals, and increasingly sophisticated pottery and tool-making techniques all occurred during this time.

Discovery of the Vinča Symbols

The Vinča symbols were first uncovered in the early 20th century. These symbols, inscribed on pottery, figurines, and other clay artifacts, immediately attracted the attention of archaeologists and historians. Their linear, abstract style differed significantly from the pictorial representations seen in contemporary art forms.

Characteristics of the Vinča Script

The symbols consist of various linear and angular marks, some of which appear to be organized in repetitive patterns. The collection includes simple geometric shapes, lines, swirls, and more complex forms that some suggest resemble letters or ideograms.

Debate Over Its Status as Writing

The central debate about the Vinča symbols revolves around whether they constitute a form of writing. If proven to be a true script, the Vinča symbols could predate the earliest known Mesopotamian cuneiform script and Egyptian hieroglyphs, traditionally considered the origins of writing around 3200 BCE.

Arguments for Its Status as Writing

1. Systematic Nature: Proponents argue that the repetitive and systematic nature of the symbols suggests they were used for communication.

2. Wide Geographic Spread: The symbols are found over a broad geographic area, indicating a shared system of symbols across the Vinča culture.

3. Complexity and Consistency: The complexity and consistency of the symbols across different artifacts suggest a degree of sophistication that might indicate a form of writing.

Counterarguments

1. Lack of Contextual Evidence: Critics point out the lack of contextual evidence, such as the symbols being used in different mediums or contexts that unequivocally suggest record-keeping or narrative functions.

2. No Decipherment: Despite numerous attempts, no one has successfully deciphered the Vinča symbols, casting doubt on whether they represent a language.

3. Symbolic or Ritualistic Purpose: Some argue that these symbols might have served a symbolic or ritualistic purpose rather than constituting a form of writing.

Comparison with Other Prehistoric Scripts

The debate about the Vinča script often involves comparisons with other prehistoric scripts such as the Tartaria tablets, the Dispilio Tablet from Greece, and the Jiahu symbols from China. These artifacts also feature undeciphered symbols and have sparked similar debates about the origins of writing.

Current Scholarly Consensus

The current scholarly consensus leans towards a cautious approach. While acknowledging the importance and intrigue of the Vinča symbols, most experts stop short of declaring them a bona fide writing system. The absence of a clear linguistic structure and the lack of decipherment are significant hurdles in classifying these symbols as a form of writing.

In conclusion, while the Vinča script remains a subject of fascination and mystery, the claim that it is the oldest form of writing is still a matter of debate. Its significance, however, in understanding the cognitive and cultural developments of the Neolithic Balkans remains undiminished. As archaeological techniques evolve and new discoveries emerge, the mystery of the Vinča script continues to captivate historians, archaeologists, and linguists alike, offering a tantalizing glimpse into the dawn of human civilization.

Stone Age road from 7,000 years ago found at the bottom of the Mediterranean

The ruins of a Stone Age road, constructed 7,000 years ago, were found at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea by archaeologists after studying satellite photographs of the sea surrounding the now-submerged Neolithic site of Soline, off the coast of Croatia.

When Soline was the location of the ancient Hvar civilization, it is thought that this road originally connected the Croatian islands of Korcula with that region. The Adriatic island of Korcula was first connected to the continent.

The University of Zadar's Mate Parica, an archaeologist, and his colleagues initiated the initial investigation that led to the discovery of Soline.

According to Parica, who made the first discovery, "this area, unlike most sections of the Mediterranean, is safe from strong waves because the many surrounding islands 'cut' the waves and protect the coast." "It undoubtedly prevented a natural disaster from occurring at the place."

As radiocarbon research of the conserved wood discovered at the site revealed that the Soline settlement dates back to approximately 4,900 BC, archaeologists believe that the road was constructed by the Hvar-Lisičići culture.

It is around 4 meters wide and was skillfully built out of stone slabs.

According to historians and archaeologists, the Stone Age Hvar culture is thought to have created trade routes between the island and the eastern Mediterranean coastlines of what is now western Asia.

Interweaving Mythology and Metallurgical Developments: The Case of the Succession of the Five Ages of Man in Hesiod's 'Works and Days'

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The succession of the Five Human Generations in Hesiod's "Works and Days": Correspondence of the mythological narrative with the metallurgical developments in Greece and the wider area?

The history of metallurgy is directly linked to the evolution of man. The technological and cultural developments in Greek mainland and the wider area of southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean associated with metallurgy may have left their echo in the traditions and myths that survived until historical times, according to several modern scholars of ancient Greek literature. The transformation of precious metals into impressive objects of prestige, power, and religious symbolism made a special impression on prehistoric people, and it is quite logical that these innovations left their traces in timeless traditions. A mythological narrative that shows a remarkable temporal parallel with these developments is the succession of human genera in Hesiod's work, "Works and Days" (the Golden Age, the Silver Age, the Bronze Age, the Age of Heroes, and the Iron Age).

The ancient Greek poet Hesiod, in his work "Works and Days," presents us with a remarkable chronology of humanity's development. His account, rooted deeply in mythological narratives, describes the succession of five human generations. As intriguing as the narrative itself is the speculated correspondence of this progression with the metallurgical developments, This article will delve into the layers of Hesiod's anthropogonic myth, tracing the intricate connection with the era's technological advancements in metallurgy.

The Age of Gold

Hesiod's first age of man, the Golden Age, was an era of abundance, peace, and prosperity. Humans lived in harmony with the gods; their lives were filled with joy and devoid of toil. This age aligns with the Greek Neolithic era, a period marked by the crafting of gold artifacts. The use of gold in this epoch was mainly symbolic, signifying wealth, power, and divine favor, reflecting the harmony between gods and men in Hesiod's golden age.

The heyday of Balkan gold metallurgy occurred during the 5th millennium BC. According to the archaeological data, it is probably reflected in the time-compressed "golden age" of the "Golden Generation", the starting point of the human species according to Hesiod's myth (which, as we now know from natural anthropology, took place several million years ago).

Representation of the burials in the Varna necropolis in Bulgaria. Those Eneolithic burials have also offered a lot more than the precious artifacts found within them and discoveries relating to social hierarchies; the features of the graves have also provided key insights into the religious beliefs and complex funerary practices of this ancient civilization.

The Age of Silver

In the Silver Age, Hesiod's narrative darkens. Humans in this era lived as children for a hundred years, under the dominion of their mothers. When they grew up, their short-lived maturity was marked by strife and ignorance. The silver generation refused to worship the gods, resulting in Zeus destroying them.

Historically, the progression to the use of silver in the Aegean area marks a shift in technological and cultural development. The shift might parallel Hesiod's mythological narrative's movement towards strife and ignorance. The silver artifacts found from this era are often associated with burial practices, symbolizing a shift towards mortality's acknowledgment, reminiscent of the harsh punishment faced by Hesiod's silver generation.

Silversmithing, another metallurgical manifestation that extends chronologically to the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, knew its heyday in the innovative Aegean with the highly symbolic ring-shaped periaptas, possibly capturing their meaning as a memory in the collective ideology of the people of that time of the era. This development seems to have been erased in the era of the "Silver Generation," which was destroyed for its impiety with the so-called Ogygus Flood, an old mythological story etched deep in the memory of humanity that is also compressed in time.

The Age of Bronze

The next era, that of the "Bronze Age", is undoubtedly associated with a new important innovation, that of the copper-tin alloy (bronze), which is concentrated in time from the 3rd millennium BC. and gave the conventional name to the research of the so-called "Bronze Age". According to the myth, Zeus created the people of this Generation from ashes. Their armor was forged from copper, as were their houses and tools.

The Bronze Age in Hesiod's sequence represents a time of warriors. These men, made from ash trees, were strong and formidable. They lived by the sword and ultimately fell by it. Their end was violent, and their passage to Hades was without honor.

Historically, the Bronze Age marked a significant technological breakthrough in metallurgy. The advent of bronze tools and weapons revolutionized societies, leading to the growth of trade networks and facilitating the rise of complex civilizations. Yet it was also an age marked by territorial conflicts and warfare, echoing the violent nature of Hesiod's Bronze Age men.

A hoard of bronze socketed axes from the Bronze Age was found in modern Germany. This was the top tool of the period and also seems to have been used as a store of value.

Wolfgang Sauber's own work

The Age of Heroes

This age, unique to Hesiod's narrative, is an intermediary period, the age of heroes and demigods. These individuals were nobler and more righteous, living in the time of legendary heroic exploits. This era doesn't have a direct metallurgical association but might symbolize a period of cultural and social transition, marked by the Homeric tales' heroic deeds.

The "Age of Heroes" is the only generation that does not correspond to any metal. It is also the only one more brilliant than the generation it succeeds. To this generation belonged the so-called Heroes of mythology, such as the Heroes of the Homeric Epics, the Argonauts, Theseus, and others. Its identification with the Bronze Age is also logical. According to experts, this generation of people summarizes a long memory horizon of past human achievements that do not necessarily have a chronological sequence between them.

The Age of Iron

The Iron Age, according to Hesiod, is the current and last generation of men. It is a time of toil, strife, and decay, where virtue is rare and injustice prevails. This pessimistic portrayal reflects the turmoil and upheavals during the Greek Dark Ages, when iron started being widely used. Iron, being common and prone to rust, can symbolize the deterioration of moral values and the hardship of life during this time.

Hesiod, like all his contemporaries, belongs to the "Iron Generation". People of this generation are also hardy but live a sad existence full of toil, drudgery, and misery without any moral principle. During this generation, Pygmy Law applies. Babies will be born with gray hair, and the gods will have completely abandoned humanity. In archaeology, the Iron Age refers to that period of history when people used iron to make tools and weapons. The adoption of this material coincided with other changes in past societies in terms of cultural methods, religious beliefs, and artistic style, which affected the economic, social, and possibly spiritual development of the era.

An exhibit of metal tools and weapons (likely votive deposits) found in the gravel pits around the River Sile is on display in the Venice National Archaeological Museum, a museum in San Marco, Venice.

Own work by the original uploader, Author Ethan Doyle White

The mythical succession of the five generations in Hesiod's "Works and Days" presents a remarkable parallel to the metallurgical advancements on the Greek mainland and in the wider region. The narrative can be seen as an allegorical representation of the socio-cultural transformations during these periods. However, one must remember that while the similarities are compelling, the allegory is not an exact historical account. It instead shows how ancient Greeks may have conceptualized and rationalized their past, drawing from the material culture they knew and the mythological narratives they believed in.

• Information derived from the book of Theodoros G. Giannopoulos, ‘The Greeks: Whence and When? Crete University Press, 2012

Read here about the book

The Varna Man and the Richest Grave of the Fifth Millennium BC

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Archaeologists in Bulgaria uncovered the earliest golden items ever found in the 1970s, close to the present city of Varna, in a massive Copper Age necropolis from the fifth millennium BC. The true significance of the discovery was not understood, however, until they arrived at grave 43. More gold was discovered in grave 43 than was discovered in the entirety of the world at that time. Within were the bones of a high status male who had been buried with unimaginable riches.

Most people have heard of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley, which are renowned for being the first civilizations to be recognized to have urbanization, structured government, and cultural innovation. The mystery civilisation that first appeared 7,000 years ago on the borders of lakes close to the Black Sea, however, has mostly gone unnoticed.

The Stunning Culture of Varna

The Varna culture, as it has come to be known, was not a little, insignificant civilisation that developed in a remote region of what would become Bulgaria and vanished without a trace into the annals of time. As the first known society to produce golden items, it was an astonishingly advanced civilization that was older than the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.

A richness in cultural traditions, intricate funerary ceremonies, an antiquated religious system, and the ability to create gorgeous and expertly-crafted objects are reflected in the biggest known prehistoric necropolis in south-eastern Europe, which is located in Varna. The term "cradle of civilization" in Europe has come to refer to it.

Goldsmithing's and wealth's ascent

According to available data, goldsmithing originally appeared in Varna between 4600 and 4200 BC. The population now had something incredibly precious to trade as technology advanced and craftsman mastered the smelting of copper and gold. The development of the society depended heavily on the opening of economic links between the Black Sea and Mediterranean region as a result of increased interactions with neighbors in both the north and south. Ships traveling across the Black Sea could dock comfortably in the deep port where the villages of Varna were located, and the city grew to be a thriving commerce hub.

The metallurgists were able to amass wealth thanks to increased trading, and very rapidly a social stratification with the metallurgists at the top, merchants in the center, and farmers making up the bottom class emerged. Extraordinary finds at a nearby cemetery further bolster the idea that Varna formerly had strong rulers or kings, but we will get to that later.

Hence, the groundwork had been done for the establishment of a strong, thriving civilization that would later impact all of Europe for thousands of years.

Learning About The Ancient Varna Culture

Tools, containers, utensils, and figures made of stone, flint, bone, and clay are the first examples of ancient Varna culture. Suddenly an amazing by chance find was made, making international news. The oldest gold objects ever discovered were found in a large Copper Age necropolis that excavator operator Raycho Marinov discovered in October 1972.

It eventually rose to prominence as one of Bulgaria's most significant archaeological finds. Under the guidance of Mihail Lazarov (1972–1976) and Ivan Ivanov (1972–1991), extensive excavations were conducted that allowed for the first time to be seen the splendid civilisation of Varna.

In the necropolis, more than 300 graves were found, and over 22,000 beautiful objects, including 3,000+ pieces of gold with a combined weight of 6 kg, were retrieved from them (13.23 lbs.) Other priceless artifacts discovered in the burials included copper, excellent flint tools, jewelry, Mediterranean mollusc shells, ceramics, obsidian blades, and beads.

Analysis of the graves revealed that the Varna culture had a highly structured society. Elite members of society were buried in shrouds with gold ornaments sewn into the cloth wrappings, and their graves were filled with treasures like gold ornaments, heavy copper axes, elegant finery, and richly decorated ceramics, while others had simple burials with few grave goods.

The Wealth of Grave 43

Despite the fact that numerous elite graves had been discovered, grave 43 stood out from the others. Archaeologists discovered the remains of a high level guy who looks to have been a monarch or leader of some sort inside grave 43. This tomb contained more gold than was discovered in the rest of the world at the time. The male, who came to be known as the Varna man, was buried with a scepter, a representation of great rank or spiritual power, and he wore a sheath of solid gold around his penis.

It is the first documented elite male burial in Europe, making the burial extremely noteworthy in addition to the grave items. Women and children had previously gotten the most extravagant funerals.

The well-known Lithuanian-American archaeologist Marija Gimbutas asserted that matriarchal pre-Indo-European communities can be inferred from Neolithic sites throughout Europe. She also suggested that the transition to male domination in Europe started about the end of the Fifth Millennium BC. In the Varna culture, it was noted that men began to receive better posthumous care about this time.

The Varna Necropolis's Complicated Funerary Rituals

In addition to the priceless objects discovered inside and the social hierarchy revelations made, the burials in the Varna necropolis have also revealed important details about the religion and elaborate funerary customs of this ancient civilisation.

Researchers soon realized that the males and females were arranged differently within the graves: the males were positioned on their backs, while the ladies were positioned in the fetal posture. The finding that some graves had no skeletons at all and were instead considered "symbolic graves" was the most surprising of all. These graves were the wealthiest in terms of the amount of gold and other things found inside of them. Unbaked clay masks of human size that were positioned where the head would have been were also found in some of these symbolic tombs, also known as cenotaphs.

It was also discovered that the tombs where the clay masks were buried had gold amulets in the form of ladies placed in the neck region. These amulets, which are connected to pregnancy and delivery, show that the 'burials' were intended for women. This is further supported by the discovery of copper pins, flint knives, and spindle whorls instead of battle-axes in each of the cenotaphs.

The Demise and Imprint of the Varna Culture

The once-dominant Varna culture started to fall apart towards the end of the fifth millennium BC. The collapse of the Varna civilisation has been attributed to a number of factors, including climate change, which converted vast tracts of agricultural land into marshes and swamps, and the invasion of soldiers on horses from the steppes.

The people of the ancient Varna civilisation left behind many enduring legacies and prepared the way for the creation of succeeding civilizations across Europe, despite the fact that they left no direct offspring. They possessed metallurgical abilities that were unmatched in Europe, if not the entire world, and their society exhibited many traits of a highly developed civilisation.

They also created the societal framework for a centralized authority, or someone or something that would watch over and guarantee the smooth operation of the society. A model of civilisation that we still adhere to today had all the key tenets of contemporary society uncovered.

Why do Experts Advocate Revising the Indo-European Linguistic Theory?

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Recent decades have seen a significant reorientation of scientific inquiry and discourse surrounding the theory of Indo-European linguistics.

The Indo-European Linguistic Theory has long been the foundation for understanding the history, development, and relationships between the many languages spoken across Europe and parts of Asia. Based on the idea that a single ancestral language, known as Proto-Indo-European, gave rise to the vast linguistic diversity we see today, this theory has provided valuable insights for historical linguistics, archaeology, and anthropology. However, recent findings have prompted some experts to propose a rethink of this influential theory, which could have wide-ranging implications for our understanding of language development and human history.

New evidence calls for a rethink.

Several factors have led scholars to reconsider the traditional Indo-European linguistic theory:

The Gravettian (30,000 to 20,000 years) is drawn in black and white; the subsequent Magdalenian (17,000 to 10,000 years) and Hamburgian (13,000-11,750 years) are in light blue and red. It is not known whether the spread of the Gravettian was a result of diffusion of people or cultures.

Source: Eugene E. Harris, Demic and cultural diffusion in prehistoric Europe in the age of ancient genomes

• New data from archaeology, genetics, and linguistics: With advances in technology and scientific methods, researchers have been able to uncover new evidence that challenges the conventional narrative of the Indo-European linguistic family. The discovery of previously unknown languages, DNA analyses, and the study of ancient texts have provided fresh insights into the possible origins and development of these languages, leading some experts to argue that the current theory is outdated.

  The foundation of the ideas up until this point—a number of linguistic presumptions—is severely questioned.

  The investigated historical languages' content is a very recent creation, and the so-called "protolanguage" reconstruction is destroyed by the temporally incongruous data (James Clackson).

  N.S. Trubetskoy believes that a group with such a protolanguage located in space (Urheimat) and time likely never existed because of their material culture, worldview, and social institutions.

• Inadequate explanation of linguistic diversity: Critics of the current theory argue that it fails to adequately explain the immense linguistic diversity found within the Indo-European language family. While the traditional theory posits a single ancestral language, it does not provide a satisfactory explanation for the complex linguistic differences between various Indo-European languages, which appear to have evolved independently of one another.

  The renowned archaeologist Herbert Kühn asserts that evidence of cultural fragmentation dates back to the Neolithic Era. The viewpoint of M. Alinei, who contends that the distinctive and extensive vocabulary of each IE language shows that this fragmentation had already occurred long before the development of Neolithic society, is on the same page.

  According to some linguistic theories, language's primary quality is preservation. Language, which is a social product rather than a living thing, occasionally changes, usually as a result of unusual and unique social processes. The idea of "linguistic waves" is a persistently popular one from the past (Wellentheorie, wave theory).

  A new perspective on the place of the IE protolanguage as part of the "wide-spread Proto-Indo-European linguistic continuum" is presented by findings like the network of cognate European hydronyms (confuting the one and only IE heartland).

  The findings of linguistic paleontology are also significant because they suggest that terms and names for fundamental components of the natural world, everyday items and tools, or human life and communication in general should likely be traced back to the origins of the "Speaking Man" (Homo Loquens), rather than to a period just before the Agricultural Revolution.

Map of Early Neolithic Europe, by Eupedia

Distribution of the Indo-European languages seen in terms of the wave theory (after Schmidt and Lehmann).

Old European hydronymic map for the root *Sal-, *Salm-

Old European hydronymic map for the root *al-, *alm-

• Alternative hypotheses: As scholars delve deeper into the linguistic, genetic, and archaeological evidence, they have put forth alternative hypotheses that challenge the traditional theory. For instance, some researchers propose that instead of a single Proto-Indo-European language, there may have been multiple ancestral languages that gave rise to the various branches of the Indo-European family. This would require a significant reevaluation of the current theory and its underlying assumptions.

  The IE problem's time frame has now dramatically expanded. Regarding the Paleolithic Age's language environment, there are many highly intriguing ideas and observations, both from an archaeological (and other) perspective. It is significant to consider that a first linguistic and cultural unification in Europe may have occurred during the Upper Paleolithic (Gravettian hypothesis), when the constant movement of hunter-gatherers may have forced linguistic stability and convergence (though probably not Nostratic), without this view amounting to an out-of-date immigration theory like those that predominated in the 20th century.

Implications for Language Study and Human History

A reconsideration of the Indo-European Linguistic Theory has the potential to reshape our understanding of language development and human history. If the current theory is revised, it could:

• Change the way we study languages: A new understanding of the origins and development of the Indo-European languages would require scholars to reassess their approach to studying these languages, from historical linguistics to comparative grammar and beyond.

• Impact theories of human migration: A revised theory could also have implications for our understanding of human migration and the spread of cultures across Europe and Asia. It may provide new insights into how ancient populations interacted and exchanged ideas, fostering a more nuanced understanding of human history.

• Encourage interdisciplinary research: As experts from various fields continue to challenge and refine the Indo-European Linguistic Theory, it may encourage more interdisciplinary research, bringing together linguists, archaeologists, geneticists, and other scholars to collaborate and share their knowledge.

The Indo-European Linguistic Theory has been a cornerstone of language and historical studies for many years, but new evidence and alternative hypotheses have prompted a growing number of experts to call for a reevaluation of its central tenets. As scholars continue to explore the complex web of linguistic, genetic, and archaeological evidence, it is essential to remain open to new ideas and to embrace the potential for a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the Indo-European language family and its place in human history.

The History of Writing: Tracing the Development of expressing Language by Systems of Markings

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by dimosthenis vasiloudis

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Protowriting, ideographic systems, or early mnemonic symbols came before more advanced writing systems in the evolution of writing in human societies (symbols or letters that make remembering them easier).

A subsequent development is true writing, in which the content of a spoken language is encoded so that another reader may reasonably reconstruct the identical utterance written down. It differs from proto-writing, which frequently forgoes recording grammatical words and affixes, making it harder or even impossible to reassemble the precise meaning intended by the writer unless a substantial amount of context is already known in advance.

Writing innovations

The idea that writing originated in a single civilization and was called "monogenesis" persisted for a long time. According to academics, all writing originated in Mesopotamia's ancient Sumer and spread around the world as a result of cultural diffusion. This argument holds that traders or merchants traveling between geographical locations passed on the idea of representing language by written signs, though perhaps not necessarily the specifics of how such a system operated.

The finding of ancient Mesoamerican scripts, far from Middle Eastern sources, demonstrated, however, that writing had been created more than once. In at least four ancient civilizations, including Mesopotamia (between 3400 and 3100 BCE), Egypt (about 3250 BCE), China (1200 BCE), and lowland portions of southern Mexico and Guatemala, writing may have independently originated (by 500 BCE).

Some academics have suggested that ancient Egypt "The earliest authentic examples of Egyptian writing differ from Mesopotamian writing in both structure and style, indicating that they must have emerged independently. Although there is still a chance that Mesopotamian "stimulus dispersion" occurred, the influence could not have extended beyond the dissemination of an idea."

Because there is no evidence of communication between ancient China and the Near Eastern literate civilizations, as well as because Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches to phonetic representation differ, it is thought that ancient Chinese characters are independent creations.

The Vinča symbols.

The Rongorongo script of Easter Island, the Vina symbols from about 5500 BCE, and the Indus script of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization are all controversial. Since none have been translated, it is unclear if they all represent real writing, protowriting, or something entirely different.

The earliest coherent texts date from around 2600 BCE, and Sumerian archaic (pre-cuneiform) writing and Egyptian hieroglyphs are usually regarded as the earliest authentic writing systems. Both developed out of their ancestors' proto-literate symbol systems between 3400 and 3100 BCE. The Proto-Elamite script belongs to roughly the same time frame.

writing methods

Writing systems are distinct from symbolic communication systems. For most writing systems, reading a text requires some knowledge of the spoken language that goes along with it. In contrast, it's not always necessary to have a prior understanding of a spoken language to use symbolic systems like information signs, paintings, maps, and mathematics. Every human group has its own language, which is thought by many to be a natural and essential aspect of mankind.

Writing system development has been intermittent, uneven, and delayed, and old oral communication systems have only been partially replaced. Writing systems generally develop more slowly after they are formed than their spoken counterparts and frequently preserve traits and idioms that have been lost to the spoken language.

Three writing standards are thought to apply to all writing systems. First, writing must be comprehensive; it must have a meaning or purpose, and it must make a point or be able to convey that message. Second, whether they are physical or digital, all writing systems must include some kind of symbol that can be created on a surface. In order to facilitate communication, the writing system's symbols must resemble spoken words or speech.

The greatest advantage of writing is that it gives society a way to regularly and thoroughly preserve information—something that the spoken word could not previously do as successfully. Writing enables communities to communicate knowledge, transmit information, and

stages of development

Sumer

An ancient civilization of southern Mesopotamia, is believed to be the place where written language was first invented around 3200 BCE.

Beginning with the Neolithic pottery phase, when clay tokens were used to keep track of particular quantities of animals or other goods, writing first appeared. These tokens were initially imprinted on the exterior of spherical clay envelopes, which were later used to keep them. Afterwards, flat tablets were gradually introduced in place of the tokens, and signs were recorded using a stylus. Towards the end of the fourth millennium BCE, Uruk was where actual writing was first discovered. Other areas of the Near East quickly followed.

The earliest recorded account of the development of writing is found in a poem from ancient Mesopotamia:

The Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and wrote on it like a tablet because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat the message. It has never been possible to write on clay before.

Enmerkar and the King of Aratta, a Sumerian epic written around 1800 BCE

Although there is agreement among scholars as to the difference between prehistory and the history of early writing, there is disagreement as to when proto-writing became "real writing." The criteria are somewhat arbitrary. In the broadest sense, writing is a way of keeping track of information. It is made up of graphemes, which in turn can be made up of glyphs.

Many centuries of shattered inscriptions typically follow the advent of writing in a particular region. The presence of coherent texts in a culture's writing system is how historians determine a culture's "historicity".

Standard reconstruction of the development of writing. There is a possibility that the Egyptian script was invented independently from the Mesopotamian script.

A conventional "proto-writing to true writing" system follows a general series of developmental stages:

Picture writing system: glyphs (simplified pictures) directly represent objects and concepts. In connection with this, the following substages may be distinguished:

• Mnemonic: glyphs primarily as a reminder.

• Pictographic: glyphs directly represent an object or a concept such as (A) chronological, (B) notices, (C) communications, (D) totems, titles, and names, (E) religious, (F) customs, (G) historical, and (H) biographical.

• Ideographic: graphemes are abstract symbols that directly represent an idea or concept.

Pre-cuneiform tags, with drawing of goat or sheep and number (probably "10"): "Ten goats", Al-Hasakah, 3300–3100 BCE, Uruk culture.

Transitional system: graphemes refer not only to the object or idea that it represents but to its name as well.

• Phonetic system: graphemes refer to sounds or spoken symbols, and the form of the grapheme is not related to its meanings. This resolves itself into the following substages:

• Verbal: grapheme (logogram) represents a whole word.

• Syllabic: grapheme represents a syllable.

• Alphabetic: grapheme represents an elementary sound.

Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC and among the earliest form of writing in Egypt. They are remarkably similar to contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.

The best known picture writing system of ideographic or early mnemonic symbols are:

• Jiahu symbols, carved on tortoise shells in Jiahu, c. 6600 BCE

• Vinča symbols (Tărtăria tablets), c. 5300 BCE[24]

• Early Indus script, c. 3100 BCE

In the Old World, true writing systems developed from neolithic writing in the Early Bronze Age (4th millennium BC).

Locations and timeframes

Comparative evolution

from pictograms to abstract shapes, in Mesopotamian cuneiforms, Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters

Proto-writing

The first writing systems of the Early Bronze Age were not a sudden invention. Rather, they were a development based on earlier traditions of symbol systems that cannot be classified as proper writing, but have many of the characteristics of writing. These systems may be described as "proto-writing". They used ideographic or early mnemonic symbols to convey information, but it probably directly contained no natural language. These systems emerged in the early Neolithic period, as early as the 7th millennium BC, and include:

• The Jiahu symbols found carved in tortoise shells in 24 Neolithic graves excavated at Jiahu, Henan province, northern China, with radiocarbon dates from the 7th millennium BCE. Most archaeologists consider these not directly linked to the earliest true writing.

• Vinča symbols, sometimes called the "Danube script", are a set of symbols found on Neolithic era (6th to 5th millennia BCE) artifacts from the Vinča culture of Central Europe and Southeast Europe.

• The Dispilio Tablet of the late 6th millennium may also be an example of proto-writing.

• The Indus script, which from 3500 BCE to 1900 BCE was used for extremely short inscriptions.

The Dispilio Tablet

The Dispilio tablet is a wooden tablet bearing inscribed markings, unearthed during George Hourmouziadis's excavations of Dispilio in Greece, and carbon 14-dated to 5202 (± 123) BC.

It was discovered in 1993 in a Neolithic lakeshore settlement that occupied an artificial island near the modern village of Dispilio on Lake Kastoria in Kastoria, Western Macedonia, Greece.

Even after the Neolithic, a number of societies used proto-writing as a transitional form before adopting formal writing. Such a mechanism might have existed in the quipu of the Incas (15th century CE), often known as "talking knots". Another example is the pictographs created by Uyaquk before the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language developed the Yugtun syllabary around 1900.

Ancient writing

The Bronze Age saw the development of writing in a wide range of cultures. Indus script, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Cretan hieroglyphs, Chinese logographs, Sumerian cuneiform writing, and the Olmec script of Mesoamerica are a few examples. Around 1600 BCE, the Chinese script most likely evolved apart from the Middle Eastern scripts. It is also generally accepted that the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems, which include the Olmec and Maya scripts, had separate origins. In 2000 BCE, it is believed that the first real alphabetic writing was created for Hebrew laborers in the Sinai by assigning Semitic values to mostly Egyptian hieratic characters (see History of the alphabet and Proto-Sinaitic alphabet).

Ethiopia's Geez writing system is regarded as Semitic. With roots in the Meroitic Sudanese ideogram system, it is most likely of semi-independent origin. The majority of alphabets used today are either direct descendants of this one invention, many through the Phoenician alphabet, or were designed in direct response to it. The early Old Italic alphabet and Plautus (c. 750–250 BCE) were separated by around 500 years in Italy, while the Elder Futhark inscriptions and early works like the Abrogans (c. 200–750 CE) are separated by a similar amount of time in the case of the Germanic peoples.

Cuneiform writing

The first Sumerian script was derived from a system of clay tokens used to denote different types of goods. This had developed into a system of keeping accounts by the end of the fourth millennium BC, utilizing a stylus with a circular form that was impressed into soft clay at various angles to record numbers. A pointed stylus was used to gradually add pictographic lettering on this to show what was being counted. Writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the name "cuneiform") began to include phonetic features by the 29th century BCE and gradually replaced writing with a round stylus and a sharp stylus by about 2700–2500 BCE.

Cuneiform first started to represent Sumerian syllables around 2600 BCE. Ultimately, cuneiform writing evolved into a general-purpose system for writing numerals, syllables, and logograms. This alphabet was adapted to the Akkadian language starting in the 26th century BCE, and from there to others like Hurrian and Hittite. This writing system resembles Old Persian and Ugaritic scripts in appearance.

Hieroglyphics from Egypt

Literacy was concentrated among a well-educated elite of scribes, who played a crucial role in upholding the Egyptian empire through writing. To become scribes in the employ of temple, royal (pharaonic), and military authority, one had to come from a certain background.

According to Geoffrey Sampson, the general concept of expressing words from a language in writing was likely transmitted to Egypt via Sumerian Mesopotamia. Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into being a little after Sumerian script, and, possibly [were], invented under the influence of the latter." Despite the significance of early Egypt-Mesopotamia links, "no definitive judgment has been established as to the genesis of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt" due to the lack of direct evidence. However, it is stated and agreed upon that "a very compelling argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt" and that "the evidence for such direct influence remains fragile."

Egyptian writing does suddenly appear at that time, but Mesopotamia has an evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to around 8000 BCE. Since the 1990s, discoveries of glyphs at Abydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may challenge the conventional idea that the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one. These glyphs were discovered in tomb U-J at Abydos; they were written on ivory and most likely served as labels for other items discovered there.

Even though he acknowledged that Egypt's geographic location made it a receptacle for many influences, Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar maintained that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols originated from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and that in regards to writing, "we have seen that a purely Nilotic, therefore African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality."

Elamite writing

The unintelligible Proto-Elamite writing first appears around 3100 BCE. Around the latter third millennium, it is thought to have evolved into Linear Elamite, which was later supplanted by Elamite Cuneiform, which was adapted from Akkadian.

Indus script

Most inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether or not these symbols constituted a writing system used to record the as yet unidentified language(s) of the Indus Valley civilisation.

The Indus script has been assigned to markings and symbols discovered at numerous Indus Valley civilization sites due to the hypothesis that they were used to transcribe the Harappan language. It is disputed whether the script, which was in use from roughly 3500 to 1900 BCE, is a Bronze Age writing script (logographic-syllabic) or merely proto-writing symbols. According to analysis, it was written in boustrophedon or from right to left.

early SEMITIC ALPHABETS

Around 1800 BCE in Ancient Egypt, the first "abjads," which mapped individual symbols to individual phonemes but not necessarily each phoneme to a symbol, appeared as a representation of the language created there by Semitic workers. However, by that time, alphabetic principles had only a remote chance of being ingrained into Egyptian hieroglyphs for upwards of a millennium.

Did the Proto-Canaanite alphabet take its symbols independently of the hieroglyphs?

It is only until the end of the Bronze Age that the Proto-Sinaitic script separates into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (c. 1400 BCE), Byblos syllabary, and the South Arabian alphabet (c. 1200 BCE). These early abjads remained of minor significance for several decades. The untranslated Byblos syllabary most likely had some influence on the Proto-Canaanite, which in turn provided inspiration for the Ugaritic alphabet (c. 1300 BCE).

Anatolian hieroglyphs

The Luwian language was written down using Anatolian hieroglyphs, a native hieroglyphic script found in western Anatolia. Around the fourteenth century BCE, it initially appeared on royal seals of the Luwians.

Chinese characters

The corpus of inscriptions on oracle bones and brass from the late Shang dynasty is the earliest authenticated example of the Chinese script that has been found so far. The oldest of these is believed to date from about 1200 BCE.

There have been recent finds of tortoise-shell carvings from around 6000 BCE, such as Jiahu Script and Banpo Script, but it is debatable whether or not the carvings are complex enough to be considered writing. 3,172 cliff carvings from the period between 6000 and 5000 BCE have been found near Damaidi in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. They contain 8,453 different characters, including images of the sun, moon, stars, gods, and scenes of grazing or hunting.

Replica

of ancient Chinese script on an oracle turtle shell

These pictographs are thought to resemble the first Chinese characters that have been confirmed to be written. Writing in China would predate Mesopotamian cuneiform, traditionally recognized as the first manifestation of writing, by about 2,000 years if it were to be considered a written language. However, it is more likely that the inscriptions represent a type of proto-writing, comparable to the modern European Vinca script.

Early Greek and Cretan scripts

Cretan relics include hieroglyphic writing (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BCE, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). The Mycenaean Greek writing system, Linear B, has been decoded, but Linear A has not yet been. The three overlapping, but distinct, Aegean pre-alphabetic writing systems can be categorized according to their chronological order and geographic distribution as follows:

• Cretan Hieroglyphic / Crete (eastward from the Knossos-Phaistos axis) / c. 2100−1700 BCE

• Linear A / Crete (except extreme southwest), Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), Greek mainland (Laconia) and west Minor Asia (Miletus and maybe Troy) / c. 1800−1450 BCE

• Linear B / Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) / c. 1450−1200 BCE

The archaeological finds with signs of pre-alphabetic scripts in the Aegean

(Up) The finds with signs of Linear B script reach about 6,000 and constitute the majority of the pre-alphabetic written monuments of the Aegean.

(Middle) About 1,400 are the finds which imprint Linear A and make up a 11% of all pre-alphabetic inscriptions.

(Down) Cretan hieroglyphics occupies 2% of the available finds with only 400 finds.

Illustration: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Mesoamerica

The Cascajal Block, a stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing that predates the first Zapotec writing from around 500 BCE, was found in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere.

Stela 12 and 13

from the southern end of Building L, in the Zapotec city of Monte Albán, Outside of Oaxaca, Mexico.

The Maya script is one of numerous pre-Columbian scripts found in Mesoamerica, and it appears to have been the most well-developed and extensively deciphered. The earliest clearly identifiable Maya inscriptions date to the third century BCE, and writing continued to be used until just before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century BCE. A combination of logograms and syllabic symbols, utilized in Maya writing, is somewhat reminiscent of current Japanese writing.

IRON AGE WRITING

The Proto-Canaanite alphabet, which was used into the Iron Age, is all that the Phoenician alphabet is (conventionally taken from a cut-off date of 1050 BCE). The Greek and Aramaic alphabets were derived from this alphabet. They eventually gave rise to the writing systems that are currently used everywhere, from Western Asia to Africa and Europe. The Greek alphabet, on the other hand, was the first to use specific symbols to represent vowel sounds.

By Matt Baker

In the first centuries of the Common Era, the Greek and Latin alphabets gave rise to a number of European scripts, including the Runes, Gothic, and Cyrillic alphabets, while the Aramaic alphabet developed into the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac abjads, the latter of which spread as far as Mongolian script. The Ge'ez abugida originated from the South Arabian alphabet. According to some academics, the Indian Brahmic family also descended from the Aramaic alphabet.

GRAKLIANI HILL WRITING

At Georgia's Grakliani Hill, behind a fallen altar from a temple dedicated to a fertility goddess from the seventh century BCE, an obscure script was uncovered in 2015. Grakliani's other temples' inscriptions, which depict animals, people, or decorative features, are different from these ones. Although its letters are rumored to be connected to ancient Greek and Aramaic, the script has no similarities to any known alphabet. In contrast, the earliest Armenian and Georgian letters come from the fifth century CE, right after the respective nations converted to Christianity. The inscription looks to be the oldest local alphabet ever uncovered in the entire Caucasus region. An portion of the inscription measuring 31 by 3 inches had been unearthed by September 2015.

Grakliani script on the basement of altar of goddess of fertility (XI-X c. BC)

Vakhtang Licheli, director of the State University's Institute of Archaeology, claims that "The writings on the temple's two altars have been kept in remarkably good condition. While the pedestal of the second altar is entirely covered with writings, the first altar has few clay letters carved into it." Unpaid students made the discovery. Inscriptions from Grakliani Hill were sent to Miami Laboratory in 2016 for beta analytic radiocarbon dating, which revealed that they were created between c. 1005 and c. 950 BCE.

WRITING IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD

When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician script for use with their own language in the early eighth century BCE, the history of the Greek alphabet officially began. The Greek and Phoenician alphabets share a lot of similarities in terms of their characters, and both alphabets nowadays are written in the same order. The Phoenician system's adapter(s) added three letters to the conclusion of the series, known as the "supplementals." The Greek alphabet evolved into a number of different forms.

Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens

One was utilized in southern Italy and west of Athens and is known as Western Greek or Chalcidian. The other variant, known as Eastern Greek, was spoken by the Athenians and in modern-day Turkey before spreading over the rest of the Greek-speaking world. The Greeks initially elected to write like the Phoenicians, from right to left, but subsequently switched to left to right. The lines would then alternately read from left to right, then from right to left, and so on. On occasion, though, the writer would begin the next line where the preceding one ended. Up until the sixth century, this style of writing, called "boustrophedon," mirrored the course of an ox-drawn plough.

Italic scripts and Latin

Cippus Perusinus

Etruscan writing near Perugia, Italy, the precursor of the Latin alphabet

All of the contemporary European scripts have their roots in Greek. The Latin alphabet, named after the Latins, a central Italian people who came to rule Europe with the emergence of Rome, is the most widely used descendant of the Greek script. Around the fifth century BCE, the Etruscan civilization, which employed a multitude of Italic scripts descended from the western Greeks, taught the Romans how to write. The other Old Italic scripts have not survived in very large quantities due to the cultural hegemony of the Roman state, and the Etruscan language is largely extinct.

WRITING DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

Roman rule in Western Europe fell apart, and the Persian Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire became the main centers of literary development. Latin, which was never a major literary language, lost prominence quickly (except within the Roman Catholic Church). Greek and Persian were the two main literary languages, but Syriac and Coptic were also significant.

Arabic quickly became a significant literary language in the area as a result of the development of Islam in the 7th century. Greek's status as a scholarly language soon lost ground to Arabic and Persian. The Turkish and Persian languages now use Arabic script as their principal writing system. The development of the cursive scripts for Greek, the Slavic languages, Latin, and other languages was also greatly inspired by this script.

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system was also extended throughout Europe thanks to the Arabic language. The modern Spanish city of Cordoba had emerged as one of the world's leading intellectual hubs by the start of the second millennium and was home to the largest library at the time. Its location at the meeting point of the Islamic and Western Christian worlds encouraged intellectual growth and written exchange between the two cultures.

THE MODERN ERA AND THE RENAISSANCE

By the 14th century, Western Europe had experienced a renaissance, which had temporarily increased the significance of Greek while slowly restoring Latin's status as an important literary language. In Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia, a comparable but smaller emergence took place. As the Islamic Golden Era came to an end, Arabic and Persian also started to slowly lose ground. In order to codify the phonologies of the various languages, the Latin alphabet underwent several alterations as a result of the rebirth of literary development in Western Europe.

Writing has undergone steady change throughout history, in large part because of the emergence of new technologies. Technology advancements such as the printing press, computer, mobile phone, and pen have all changed how and what is written as well as the medium in which it is generated. Characters can now be generated with a button press rather than a hand motion, especially with the development of digital technology like the computer and the smartphone.

The "Oldest Gold of Humanity" Was Buried 6,500 Years Ago in the Varna Necropolis

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By the Archaeologist editor group

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The necropolis in Varna, a cemetery from 4,660–4,450 BC on the Bulgarian Black Sea coast, is home to the oldest gold objects that are now known to exist.

The Necropolis of Varna, also known as the Varna Cemetery, is a significant cemetery in the western industrial zone of Varna and is widely regarded as one of the most significant prehistoric archeological sites in the entire globe. It is a product of the Varna culture's chalcolitic (copper phase), which lasted between 6,000 and 6,500 years ago.

According to the Archeology of Bulgaria, a total of 294 tombs containing around 3,000 gold artifacts have been found in the necropolis of Varna. Despite the fact that numerous elite tombs have been found, Tomb 43 stands out from the rest. The skeletal bones of a tall guy who appeared to be a monarch or leader have been found by archaeologists.

The golden treasure in Varna was unintentionally discovered in 1972, while the area was being prepared for a tin factory, when a 22-year-old excavator operator named Raycho Marinov dug up a number of artifacts and transported them to his home. A few days later, he made the decision to get in touch with some nearby archaeologists and inform them of the find.

The necropolis' 294 calcolithic graves were subsequently discovered during the excavation process. The tombs from the Copper Period, where the golden тsus of Varna was discovered, have radiocarbon dates that place them between 4,560 and 4,450 BC.

The Neolithic and Chalcolithic eras in modern-day Bulgaria and the remainder of the Balkans, the Lower Danube, and the west coast of the Black Sea are where ancient European human civilization first emerged and produced all of these weird тsus. Some academics refer to this ancient civilization as "old Europe."

Rock salt was undoubtedly shipped from Provadiya-Solnitsata ("Salt Well"), according to discoveries from the necropolis, which also suggests that Varna's culture had commercial links with faraway regions of the Black Sea and Mediterranean. The Mediterranean mollusk Spondyla's seashells, which were discovered in the tombs of the Varna Necropolis and other Chalcolitic sites in northern Bulgaria, are also thought to have served as a form of currency in antiquity, according to archaeologists.

Archaeologists also think that the Balkan Peninsula (southeastern Europe) has had the form of a state and a royal institution since the Copper Age because several of the unearthed tombs contain significant amounts of gold.

With a combined weight of 6.5 kg, the more than 3,000 gold artifacts at the Gold Esu brewery are classified into 28 different varieties.

As previously stated, grave no. 43 in the central section of the Varna necropolis was the location of one of the most intriguing inventories. It is reportedly between 1.70 and 1.75 meters (5 feet 6 and 8 inches) tall. Because his tomb contained more than 1.5 kg of gold, archaeologists surmise that he was buried alongside other notable members of his community, most likely a monarch or king.

A stone ax, a copper ax with gold accents, ten huge applications, numerous rings—some of which hang on strings—two necklaces, and chains are among the gold accessories. ribbons and other decorations with gold accents.

Archaeologists discovered more than 850 gold artifacts, including a tiara, earrings, necklace, belt, bracelet, breastplate, gold scepter with hammer, and gold model, in Tomb No. 36, a symbolic tomb, which was one of the other tombs on the site that was investigated. 30 models of horn heads and two gold bars with animal representations were pruned together.

The artifacts were discovered wrapped in a gold cloth that traced the contours of a human torso on the right, indicating that the tomb contained a male burial mound. Archaeologists once thought of gold objects as royal emblems.

Graves Nos. 1, 4, and 5 in the Chalcolitic Necropolis in Varna also have similar "royal" graves. The function of the blacksmith, who as the creator superseded the position of the Great Mother and changed the matriarchal society into a patriarchal one, is celebrated in many findings from the Varna Chalcolitic Necropolis.

Because metal was then a state emblem rather than an economic tool, in ancient society, the role of a carpenter was equivalent to that of a king.

Only around 30% of the necropolis's rough terrain has been dug out thus far.

DNA Study Sheds Light on the Heartland of Indo-European Languages

Research suggests a family of languages now spoken from Europe to India originated between the Caucasus and eastern Anatolia. But identity of first Indo-Europeans remains a mystery

A new DNA analysis, published on Thursday, August 26th, on 777 ancient genomes from across the so-called Southern Arc, namely Southern Europe and West Asia, redirects the cradle of Indo-Europeans and sheds light on the Proto-Greek prehistoric past.

The new study, published this Thursday, August 26, 2022 in Science, reports on genetic data extracted from 777 individuals who lived across the so-called Southern Arc, namely Southern Europe and West Asia. According to other more recent DNA data of ancient Anatolians, which raised new questions about the “spread” of Indo-European languages, it seems that Anatolians did not mix with steppe pastoralists during the early Bronze Age. It’s the only place where Indo-European-related languages were spoken even though there was no steppe ancestry.

Ancient Anatolian peoples spoke the now-extinct Anatolian languages of the Indo-European language family, which were largely replaced by the Greek language during classical antiquity as well as during the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods. The major Anatolian languages included Hittite, Luwian, and Lydian while other, poorly attested local languages included Phrygian, Palaic, Luwic, and Mysian.

Many partings, many meetings: How migration and admixture drove early language spread.

Westward and northward migrations out of the West Asian highlands split the Proto-Indo-Anatolian language into Anatolian and Indo-European branches. Yamnaya pastoralists, formed on the steppe by a fusion of newcomers and locals, admixed again as they expanded far and wide, splitting the Proto-Indo-European language into its daughter languages across Eurasia. Border colors represent the ancestry and locations of five source populations before the migrations (arrows) and mixture (pie charts) documented here.

The new Indo-European DNA research also shows that between five and seven thousand years ago there was a gradual increase of ancestry from the Caucasus in the Anatolian genome, probably by a series of migrations from the east, at the end of which about a third of the ancestry of Anatolians could be traced to somewhere in the Caucasus.

The fact that the same Caucasus component found in Anatolia comprises roughly fifty percent of the Yamnaya pastoralist genome further implicates the riddle of Indo-European languages. Given that this mysterious Caucasian link is the only ancestral commonality between the Yamnaya and the ancient Anatolians, it seems plausible that this enigmatic migration from the Caucasus brought the ancestral form of Indo-European to both of these peoples. Therefore, the homeland and the “first language” of Indo-Europeans must be placed somewhere in the Caucasus.

We must point out that these conclusions seem to primarily justify the eminent archaeologist Colin Renfrew and his Anatolian hypothesis, and they do line up quite well with contemporary archeological indications. The British archeologist compares the spread of the Indo-European languages to the spread of the Neolithic way of life from its Anatolian source in the seventh millennium BC (possibly the Caucasus).

Pylos Combat Agate” found in the Grave of the Griffin WarriorCredit: Photo Jeff Vanderpool. Courtesy

Renfrew also identifies this Neolithic demic diffusion with the spread of the Proto-Indo-European language and its subsequent differentiation into the daughter branches, i.e., the different Early Neolithic cultural phases across Europe.

The most interesting conclusion about prehistoric Greek populations comes from the new estimation of the Mycenaean steppe ancestry (about 1/10). The new study shows that this proportion is not uniform across the population. In fact, even among the elites, it was possible to find people who were not genetically related to Yamnaya (such as the genome of the so-called Griffin Warrior of Pylos).

According to experts, steppe migrants did not establish a rule over the natives and kept to themselves. Rather, they admixed with them, and there were still people without steppe ancestry with elite roles in mainland Greece, especially in Peloponnese. This means that during the later Mycenaean period in Greece, the new data suggest Yamnaya descendants had little impact on Greek social structure.

This explanation also once again confirms C. Renfrew and many other scholars, who have insisted throughout the last decades that the picture of the Proto-Indo-Europeans as warlike mounted nomads has been based not only on the misuse of linguistic paleontology but also on serious anachronism.

New DNA analysis shed light to Indo-European homeland

Credit: PeopleOfAr

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Detailed paleogenetic research sheds light on Southern Arc migration, farming, and language evolution.

In a trio of papers, published simultaneously in the journal Science, Ron Pinhasi from the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology and Human Evolution and Archaeological Sciences (HEAS) at the University of Vienna and Songül Alpaslan-Roodenberg from the University of Vienna and Harvard University, Iosif Lazaridis and David Reich at Harvard University—together with 202 co-authors—report a massive effort of genome-wide sequencing from 727 distinct ancient individuals with which it was possible to test longstanding archaeological, genetic and linguistic hypotheses. They present a systematic picture of the interlinked histories of peoples across the Southern Arc Region from the origins of agriculture, to late medieval times.

Credit: University of Vienna

The first article by the international team looked at the origins and dissemination of Indo-European and Anatolian languages. The Indo-Anatolian language family's ancestral home is thought to have been in West Asia, according to genetic evidence, with secondary dispersals of non-Anatolian Indo-Europeans from the Eurasian steppe. People with Caucasian origin came into Anatolia in the west and the steppe in the north during the first stage, which took place between 7,000 and 5,000 years ago. These people may have spoken Anatolian and Indo-European languages in their ancestry.

Around 5,000 years ago, Yamnaya steppe herders with Caucasus hunter-gatherer and Eastern hunter-gatherer heritage set off a series of migrations across Eurasia that may be traced to all currently spoken Indo-European languages (such as Greek, Armenian, and Sanskrit). Their southern excursions into the Balkans and Greece, as well as their eastern expansions across the Caucasus into Armenia, left a mark on the region's Bronze Age inhabitants.

The Yamnaya herders' descendants mixed differently with the local people as they grew. Several types of genetic evidence can be used to pinpoint how Indo-European-speaking immigrants from the steppe interacted with locals to create the Greek, Paleo-Balkan, and Albanian (Indo-European) languages in Southeastern Europe and the Armenian language in West Asia. The Yamnaya had a significant influence on Southeastern Europe, as individuals with nearly pure Yamnaya heritage arrived shortly after the Yamnaya migrations began.

The Southern Arc's Anatolia core region, where large-scale data offers a rich picture of change—and lack of change—over time, yields some of the most startling findings. According to the findings, Anatolia was not significantly affected by the Yamnaya migrations, in contrast to the Balkans and the Caucasus. Due to the absence of Eastern hunter-gatherer ancestors in Anatolia, in contrast to all other places where Indo-European languages were spoken, no connection to the steppe can be established for speakers of Anatolian languages (such as Hittite and Luwian).

The southern Caucasus was impacted numerous times, even before the Yamnaya migrations, in contrast to Anatolia's startling impermeability to steppe migrations. "I was surprised to learn that the Areni Chalcolithic people, who were discovered 15 years ago in the excavation I co-led, had ancestry from gene flow from the north to areas of the southern Caucasus more than 1,000 years before the Yamnaya expanded, and that this northern influence would disappear in the area before reappearing a few thousand years later. This demonstrates that there is still a lot of information to be learned through new digs and fieldwork in Eastern Western Asia "Ron Pinhasi says.

"Anatolia was home to varied communities descending from both local hunter-gatherers and eastern populations of the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and the Levant," states Songül Alpaslan-Roodenberg

"Variations of the same types of ancestry were shared by the inhabitants of the Marmara region, Southeastern Anatolia, the Black Sea, and the Aegean regions."

Credit: University of Vienna

The interconnections of the first farming societies

The second research project investigates the origins of the world's oldest Neolithic populations, which date to around 12,000 years ago. "The genetic findings support the idea that early farming groups had a network of pan-regional relationships. In addition, they offer fresh proof that the Neolithic transition was a difficult process that took place not just in one central region but also in Anatolia and the Near East, "Ron Pinhasi said.

It gives the first ancient DNA data for Pre-Pottery Neolithic farmers from the Tigris side of northern Mesopotamia, which is a critical region for the origins of agriculture and can be found in both eastern Turkey and northern Iraq. The island of Cyprus, which saw the earliest maritime migration of farmers from the eastern Mediterranean, also contains the first ancient DNA from Pre-Pottery farmers. Together with the first information from Neolithic Armenia, it also offers fresh information on early Neolithic farmers from the Northwest Zagros.

By filling in these gaps, the authors were able to examine the genetic history of these societies, for which archaeological research had previously documented intricate economic and cultural interactions but was unable to track mating practices or interactions that did not leave visible material traces. The findings demonstrate pre-Neolithic roots from hunter-gatherers in the Caucasus, Levant, and Anatolia, and they demonstrate that these early farming cultures created a continuity of lineage that mirrored the topography of West Asia. The findings also show at least two waves of migration from the Fertile Crescent's core to Anatolia's ancient farmers.

The historic period

The third piece demonstrates how ancient Mediterranean political systems maintained differences in lineage from the Bronze Age while remaining connected by migration. The findings indicate that while Italians before the Imperial period had a totally diverse distribution, the ancestry of those who resided in and around Rome during the Imperial period was nearly identical to that of Roman and Byzantine inhabitants from Anatolia. This shows that the heterogeneous but comparable population of the Roman Empire, both in its longer-lasting eastern component focused on Anatolia and in its shorter-lasting western part, was plausible drawn to a significant extent from Anatolian pre-Imperial sources.

"Our findings are rather unexpected considering that in a Science study I co-authored in 2019 on the genetic heritage of people from Ancient Rome, we discovered a cosmopolitan pattern that we initially believed to be specific to Rome. Now that we can see it, other parts of the Roman Empire were just as multicultural as Rome itself, "Ron Pinhasi argues.

Researchers find Prehistoric grave containing 169 gold rings

Archaeologists Have Uncovered a Vast Trove of Gold Rings Buried Alongside an ‘Extremely Rich’ Ancient Noblewoman in Romania

Excavators found more Copper Age gold in the single dig than had previously been discovered in the entire Carpathian Basin.

Image Credit : Tarii Crisurilor Museum

Archaeologists have made a stunning find inside a prehistoric grave in Romania: a cache of 169 gold rings, some 800 mother-of-pearl beads, and an ornate spiraled copper bracelet.

Excavations at the site, near the Biharia commune in Bihor County, Crișana, were led by archaeologist Călin Ghemiș of the Ţării Crişurilor Museum between March and June of this year, according to Heritage Daily.

“It is a phenomenal discovery. Such a treasure no longer exists in Central and Eastern Europe,” Ţării Crişurilor director Gabriel Moisa said at a press conference, according to Romanian news outlet Agerpres. “It seems that it was the grave of a woman, extremely rich. We do not know who she was.”

The burial is believed to belong to the Copper Age Tiszapolgár culture, which flourished in Eastern and Central Europe from about 4500 to 4000 BC.

Gold rings from prehistoric Romanian tomb. Photo courtesy of the Ţării Crişurilor Museum, Oradea, Romania.

“The gold hoard is a sensational find for the period, considering that all the gold pieces from the Carpathian Basin total around 150 pieces. Well, here there are over 160 in just one inventory,” Ghemis said.

Archaeologists identified the remains as belonging to a woman based on the size of the skeleton, and the fact that there were no weapons buried in the grave. The gold rings would have likely been used to adorn her hair.

“We want to find out what kind of culture the person belonged to, and also whether the rings were made of gold from the Transylvanian Archipelago,” Moisa added.

Gold rings from prehistoric Romanian tomb. Photo courtesy of the Ţării Crişurilor Museum, Oradea, Romania.

The bones have been sent to laboratories in Marosvásárhely and Holland for further analysis, including carbon-14 dating and DNA testing.

The gold rings are undergoing conservation and cleaning and could go on display at the museum by year’s end.

The ancient tomb’s trove of golden treasure rivals other recent archaeological discoveries, such as the cache of 6th century gold jewelry that an amateur metal detectorist found in Denmark in late 2020, or a similarly unearthed haul of Anglo-Saxon gold that turned up between 2014 and 2020.

Gold rings being excavated from a prehistoric Romanian tomb. Photo courtesy of the Ţării Crişurilor Museum, Oradea, Romania.

Rock Sculpture of Decebalus; The tallest in Europe

The rock sculpture of Decebalus is a colossal carving of the face of Decebalus (r. AD 87–106), the last king of Dacia, who fought against the Roman emperors Domitian and Trajan to preserve the independence of his country, which corresponds to present-day Romania.

The sculpture is located near the city of Orșova, in Mehedinți County. It was made between 1994 and 2004, on a rocky outcrop on the river Danube, at the Iron Gates, which form the border between Romania and Serbia. The Dacian king’s sculpture is the tallest rock relief in Europe, at 55 m (180 ft) in height and 25 m (82 ft) in width.

It was commissioned by Romanian businessman Iosif Constantin Drăgan and it took 10 years for twelve sculptors to complete it. The lead artist sculptor was Florin Cotarcea, from Orșova.  According to Drăgan’s website, the businessman purchased the rock in 1992, after which the Italian sculptor Mario Galeotti assessed the location and made an initial model. The first six years involved dynamiting the rock into the basic shape, and the remaining four years were devoted to completing the detail.

Under the face of Decebalus there is a Latin inscription which reads “DECEBALUS REX—DRAGAN FECIT” (“King Decebalus—Made by Drăgan”). The carving was placed opposite an ancient memorial plaque, carved in the rock on the Serbian side of the river facing Romania. The plaque, known as the Tabula Traiana, records the completion of Trajan’s military road along the Danube and thus commemorates the final defeat of Decebalus by Trajan in 105, and the absorption of the Dacian kingdom into the Roman Empire. Drăgan wanted the Serbs to carve a giant head of a Roman Emperor, as if confronting Decebalus on the opposite side of the river, but the Serbs refused.

Significance

Drăgan was a leading figure in the protochronism and Dacianism movements, nationalist ideologies which attempted to portray Romania as the major cradle of civilisation and which identified Romania with the Dacians and an ancient Thracian empire that supposedly dominated central Europe. In this ideology, Dacia, the pre-Roman name of Romania, was the inheritor of this Thracian culture, a view expounded by Drăgan in his book and journal Noì, tracii (“We Thracians”).

The Fundația Europeană Drăgan, Drăgan’s foundation, states that “Giuseppe Costantino Dragan is a strong supporter of the theory that the original ‘flame’ of civilization started on the ancient territory of Romania and argues as much in his work”. Drăgan saw the sculpture as a signpost to the cradle of civilisation. He is quoted saying, “Anyone travelling towards ‘Decebal Rex Dragan Fecit’ is also travelling towards the origins of European civilization and will discover that a United Europe represents the natural course of history”.

By Vlad the Impaler - Dracula

The Nebra Sky Disk: Real or Fake?

The Nebra sky disc (German: Himmelsscheibe von Nebra) is a bronze disc of around 30 cm (12 in) diameter and a weight of 2.2 kg (4.9 lb), having a blue-green patina and inlaid with gold symbols. These symbols are interpreted generally as the Sun or full moon, a lunar crescent, and stars (including a cluster of seven stars interpreted as the Pleiades). Two golden arcs along the sides, interpreted to mark the angle between the solstices, were added later. A final addition was another arc at the bottom with internal parallel lines (of uncertain meaning, variously interpreted as a solar barge with numerous oars, the Milky Way.

The disc has been attributed to a site in present-day Germany near Nebra, Saxony-Anhalt, and was originally dated by archaeologists to c. 1600 BC, based on the provenance provided by the looters who found it. Researchers initially suggested the disc is an artefact from the Bronze Age Unetice culture, although a later dating to the Iron Age has also been proposed.

If its Bronze Age dating is accurate, the Nebra sky disc features the oldest concrete depiction of the cosmos yet known from anywhere in the world. In June 2013, it was included in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register and termed "one of the most important archaeological finds of the twentieth century." If, however, the Iron Age dating is sustained, "that title could go to a star clock in a grave's wall painting found in Thebes, Egypt", which is dated to 1463 BC.

Replica of the find situation of the Nebra Sky Disc for the German exhibition Der geschmiedete Himmel (German "The forged sky").

Dating

The precise dating of the Nebra sky disc depended upon the dating of a number of Bronze Age weapons, which were offered for sale with the disc and said to be from the same site. These axes and swords can be dated typologically to the mid-second millennium BC. Radiocarbon dating of a birchbark particle found on one of the swords to between 1600 and 1560 BC confirmed this estimate. This corresponds to the date of burial, at which time the disc had likely been in existence for several generations.

The swords found with the disc.

However, research published in 2020 by archaeologists from Goethe University Frankfurt and Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich casts doubt on this dating. After reevaluating prior research and the circumstances of the disc's discovery, the authors argue that the disc was likely not part of the cache of Bronze Age weapons, and therefore, cannot be dated with these artefacts. Instead they assert that the disc should be evaluated as an individual find. The authors contend it bears hallmarks of an Iron Age item, and they place its origins instead in the first millennium BC. This younger age, they argue, would significantly change the sometimes far-reaching cultural and historical conclusions that have been attributed to the disc.

Other associated finds: chisel, axeheads, bracelets.

Origin of the metals

According to an initial analysis of trace elements by x-ray fluorescence by E. Pernicka, then at the University of Freiberg, the copper originated at Bischofshofen in Austria, whilst the gold was thought to be from the Carpathian Mountains. A more recent analysis found that the gold used in the first development phase was from the River Carnon in Cornwall, United Kingdom. The tin present in the bronze was also of Cornish origin.

Archaeologists Uncover Bones of 5,000-year-old ‘Large Men’ Dyed Red

The bones of 5,000-year-old ‘large men’ covered in red dye have been uncovered by Polish archaeologists in northern Serbia.

The archaeologists say the remains of the men, which are significantly taller than earlier finds, most likely belonged to people who arrived from the steppes of southern Russia or Ukraine.

Richly equipped with weapons, ornaments and decorated vessels, the bones belonged to men with a height of over 1.8m, about 20 cm taller than previous finds.Piotr Włodarczak

Richly equipped with weapons, ornaments and decorated vessels, the bones belonged to men with a height of over 1.8m, about 20 cm taller than previous finds.

The research focused on two large mounds in the Šajkaška region in the autonomous district of Vojvodina on the lower Tisza - on the western edge of the Eurasian steppes.

The research focused on two large mounds in the Šajkaška region in the autonomous district of Vojvodina on the lower Tisza - on the western edge of the Eurasian steppes.

Piotr Włodarczak

In each of the mounds were two spacious, wooden burial chambers.

Initially - when the first deceased were buried about 3,000 BC - they were much smaller. After about 100-200 years, when the second burial was dug, their diameters and heights were significantly bigger.

Piotr Włodarczak, from the Institute of Archeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, told PAP: “The graves we discovered were not spectacularly equipped, but the red colour of part of the bones attracted attention.

“This was due to the use of ocher to sprinkle or colour the bodies of the dead,” adding that it was a "sacred colour" used during funeral rituals.

Piotr Włodarczak, from the Institute of Archeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, told PAP: “The graves we discovered were not spectacularly equipped, but the red colour of part of the bones attracted attention.M. Posiadło

He continued: “Both the use of ocher and the above-average height of the dead - men living in this part of Europe at the turn of the 4th and 3rd millennium were usually around 1.6 m tall - indicate that the deceased were newcomers.

“The ritual of using ocher and placing individual burials in large mounds is associated with the communities inhabiting the Eastern European steppe areas.”

Włodarczak said a nomadic community came to Europe from the southern steppes of Russia and Ukraine at the turn of the 4th and 3rd millennium BC.

He added that they were from the Jamnaya culture and that they significantly changed the cultural situation in Europe.

When the first deceased were buried about 3,000 BC they were much smaller. After about 100-200 years, when the second burial was dug, their diameters and heights were significantly bigger.Piotr Włodarczak

In the third millennium BC archaeologists noticed a cultural change - funeral rituals and the way of making pottery changed. The newcomers also flowed into the areas of modern Poland.

"Proto-state centres of the Bronze Age began to emerge and the elites were separated, as evidenced, for example, by the large burial mounds where the individuals were buried," Włodarczak added.

The excavation research took place in 2016-2018, but only now scientists have finalised specialist analyses. The project was financed by the National Science Centre.

Source: thefirstnews

Meet and Communicate with a Stone Age Man who lived 10,000 Years Ago Along the Danube River

Now you can meet and communicate with a Stone age man who lived some 10,000 years ago along the Danube river in eastern Serbia. By using archaeological, anthropological and DNA data and the newest technologies, a team of Serbian archaeologists lead by Sofija Stefanović managed to reconstruct his face and make 3D interactive biokinetic model. He can smile or jaw, get angry or even wink, depending on the behavior of the spectator. The model was presented yesterday at Serbia pavilion at World Expo 2020 exhibition in Dubai, United Arab Emirates.

The model was made based on skeletal remains of male individual from grave no. 69, at Lepenski Vir archaeological site from Mesolithic period, located in Eastern Serbia. He was buried in a specific “lotus“ position, characteristic for Lepenski vir culture, with crossed legs, and archaeologists assume that he was an important member of the community, possibly a shaman. This man lived some 8000 – 7500 years BC.

Based on the anthropological analysis we know that he was around 55 years old when he died, with height of 1,78 cm and weight of around 70 kilograms, and that his diet consisted mostly of fish. This is not surprising, since the Danube rive, Europe’s second largest, vas vital for Lepenski vir culture. Those people ate a lot of fish, and their art reflects their close connections with this river.

Data extracted from DNA and anthropological analysis, along with technologies developed for gaming industries (Metahuman and Unreal Engine), provided enough material for realistic reconstruction of the face and facial expressions. The skull was scanned and used for making 3D model, and facial expressions were developed based on analysis of hundreds of thousands different human faces, which provided statistical data for every expression based on range of the lips, thickness of the muscles...

Jugoslav Pendić scanned the skull, and Oscar Nielsen from Sweden made the phorensic reconstruction of the face. Jugoslav then scanned the face and made digital model of it. Movements of the model were developed by Milica Tomić, and Bojan Petrović analyzed teeth and jaws.

The Mesolithic site of Lepenski Vir, Serbia.

This man belonged to Lepenski vir culture, which flourished during Mesolithic period along the Danube river in present-day eastern Serbia and south-western Romania. People of this culture lived in planned settlements with houses and trapezoid-base sanctuaries, and necropolises indicating special burial rituals, monumental stone sculptures, earliest in Europe, and various items carved of bone and stone testify that they developed religious beliefs and practiced various cults and rituals. At the time of discovery, Lepenski Vir was an isolated phenomenon, which had not significantly changed since the Mesolithic period. Unlike other parts of Europe, where there is only scant evidence about Mesolithic, Lepenski Vir provides remains which allow a complete reconstruction of culture, art and society of that period. Members of this culture were the first to meet and live in piece with newcomers from the east who brought agriculture, domesticated animals and Neolithic to Europe.

From Archeoserbia (Facebook)

Serbia: Under St. Peter's Church in Ras, the remains of an ancient building, 500-year-old coins and 20 graves

Latest archaeological news from Serbia – few days ago within the complex of early medieval church of St Peter and Paul in Ras, near Novi Pazar in south-western Serbia, during rescue excavations, archaeologists came across some interesting finds – remains of unknown building, coins, pottery and 20 graves.
The Church of St Peter and Paul, known as Peter’s church, is oldest active church in Serbia. It originates from 8th century, or even from earlier period, and it was build above prehistoric Iron age burial mound. The site provided numerous archaeological artifacts during several decades of excavation, from different periods, prehistory, antiquity and medieval times.

Latest excavations from previous week revealed remains of a building of unknown purpose. Archaeologists don’t know yet when it was built and what it was used for, but it most likely originates from medieval period. Further research will shed additional light on these questions, since the excavation is still in progress. Besides that, they found 20 graves, fragments of pottery and Ottoman Turkish and Austrian coins minted in 16th and 17th century.

We hope that new updates about these discoveries will be published soon, since this site is located in the area of Old Ras, one of the capitals of medieval Serbian state, rich with archaeological remains from different historical periods.