The Tower of the Winds: The Oldest Weather Station in Human History Stands in the Heart of Athens

Nestled among the picturesque alleys and neoclassical buildings of Plaka, one of Athens’ most charming neighborhoods, stands a truly unique monument: the Tower of the Winds, known in Greek as Aerides.

Built in the first half of the 1st century BC by the astronomer Andronicus of Cyrrhus in Macedonia, this remarkable octagonal tower rises 13.5 meters high and is constructed entirely of Pentelic marble. In ancient times, it served a remarkable dual purpose: it functioned both as a clock and as an advanced weather station.

Carved into the top of each side are reliefs of the eight wind deities, complete with their distinctive symbols and names: Boreas (North), Kaikias (Northeast), Apeliotes (East), Euros (Southeast), Zephyrus (West), Notus (South), Skiron (Northwest), and Lips (Southwest).

Ingenious Ancient Engineering

On the outside, sundials tracked the hours of daylight, while inside, an innovative hydraulic mechanism told the time on cloudy days and even at night. This ingenious system is considered one of the most sophisticated timekeeping devices of the ancient world.

From Observatory to Place of Worship

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When the Ottomans regained control of Athens in the 18th century, the Tower of the Winds was transformed into a prayer house for the Mevlevi Order of Dervishes, earning the nickname “Tekke of Ibrahim.” It was during this time that the windows, still visible today, were added. Thanks to the Mevlevi Dervishes, the tower remained in Greece and escaped the fate of being dismantled and transported to Britain by Lord Elgin, who had planned to take the entire structure. The Dervishes firmly refused to allow it.

A Temple to the Winds

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After Greece’s liberation, Athenians believed the structure was a temple dedicated to Aeolus, the god of the winds — a belief reflected in the name of the nearby Aiolou Street.

In truth, the Tower of the Winds holds the title of the world’s oldest meteorological station, and its fascinating journey through the centuries continues to captivate visitors today.

Why Visiting Athens’ Brand-New Miniature Museum Is an Immersive Experience for Everyone

The heart of Greece now beats at a 1:50 scale in Athens’ spectacular new Miniature Museum — Greece in Miniature (Mini Greece) — which officially opened its doors on October 19, 2024. Located in the center of Athens, this innovative space offers visitors a captivating journey through architecture, technology, and cultural memory.

This modern, privately owned, five-story museum seamlessly blends architectural craftsmanship with cutting-edge technology and Greek heritage. At Mini Greece, visitors can “travel” across the entire country through meticulously crafted scale models of monuments and breathtaking landscapes.

The Visionary Behind It: Alexander Mensikov

The mastermind behind this ambitious project is Alexander Mensikov, a seasoned design engineer originally from Ukraine and now based in Europe. With years of experience creating architectural models for construction firms, Mensikov’s inspiration for “Greece in Miniature” came from an unexpected twist of fate — a family road trip through France. Lost on the highway, he accidentally stumbled upon the France in Miniature theme park. The experience left a lasting impression, sparking a dream to build something similar.

His first major project was Ukraine in Miniature in 2006, followed by Bulgaria in Miniature. He has also crafted models for private collections, including a stunning replica of Vienna’s St. Stephen’s Cathedral — an impressive three meters long and over five meters high!

Yet, Mensikov’s deep admiration for ancient Greek culture, its aesthetics, and Greece’s influence on global history made this project a natural next step. As he puts it:

“Greece gave the world writing, science, philosophy, and architecture. Its monuments withstand the test of time — they are wonders that deserve to be accessible to everyone.”

And the journey doesn’t stop here — plans are already in motion for themed parks in India, a land of mysticism, centuries-old history, and unparalleled cultural diversity.

Bringing History to Life — VR, AR & Audio-Visual Guides

At Greece in Miniature, technology is more than a gimmick; it’s a powerful tool for learning and wonder. State-of-the-art VR headsets allow visitors to “travel back” to ancient Greece and witness landmarks like the Parthenon, Knossos, and Lindos in their full, restored glory.

Meanwhile, Augmented Reality (AR) breathes life into the miniature displays, layering them with dynamic elements and information that add depth to the visual experience.

The museum also features a comprehensive audio-visual guide system, offering visitors a well-organized, multilingual tour. This digital guide shares historical context and engaging stories, weaving a rich narrative that enhances understanding and connection with each exhibit.

Technology here becomes a bridge between memory, knowledge, and emotion — transforming a simple visit into a vivid experience for all ages, and making the museum a living window into the past.

A Museum for Everyone — All Ages, All Backgrounds

This unique museum welcomes families, school groups, tourists, students, and architecture enthusiasts alike. It’s an educational, interactive, and entertaining environment, offering a fresh way to see Greece — holistically, with multiple senses engaged, blending knowledge with immersive experience. Step inside, and it feels like stepping into a fairytale world — as if you’re Gulliver wandering the land of the Lilliputians.

Accessibility Without Barriers — Culture for All

Greece in Miniature is built with a deep commitment to inclusivity and universal accessibility. The museum is fully accessible to people with disabilities, featuring elevators, ramps, accessible restrooms, and clear signage. Specially designed interactive stations ensure that visitors with mobility, visual, or hearing challenges can fully enjoy the experience.

Accessibility at Mini Greece is not just a practical priority — it’s a core philosophy: equal access to culture, history, and knowledge is a cornerstone of the museum’s vision.

An Unprecedented Discovery: Scientists Stunned by Fungus Capable of Producing Gold

An international team of researchers has made a groundbreaking discovery, recently published in the prestigious journal Nature Communications. Scientists have revealed that a common fungus of the species Fusarium oxysporum has the astonishing ability to generate tiny gold particles on its surface by absorbing metals from mineral samples.

The study, led by Tsing Bohu at Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), was based on an innovative experiment: the fungus was exposed to dust extracted from a meteorite found in the asteroid belt. This sample contained various minerals, including iron, calcium, and aluminum.

However, what truly astonished the research team was the organism’s unexpected response: after absorbing these elements, Fusarium oxysporum produced microscopic particles of pure gold.

This process is part of what scientists describe as the “biogeochemical cycle of gold” — a natural phenomenon in which microorganisms actively contribute to the formation, breakdown, and re-accumulation of precious metals. In this remarkable case, the fungus not only detects the presence of gold but appears to organically integrate it into its biological structure.

From Earth to Space

This discovery opens up exciting possibilities in the fields of mining and biotechnology. The ability of an organism to process minerals — especially of extraterrestrial origin — and isolate valuable metals paves the way for what researchers call “biometallurgy” in space environments.

Scientists are already exploring ways to optimize this gold-producing mechanism through genetic modification, with the aim of increasing its efficiency.

Although the amount of gold currently produced is minimal, the potential applications are immense. Integrating such biological processes into industrial operations could revolutionize metal extraction, offering a more sustainable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly alternative to conventional mining methods.

Gold has captivated humanity for millennia — but the idea that a humble fungus could become a “biological alchemist” might just be one of the most remarkable scientific breakthroughs of our time.

New Documentary on the Parthenon Marbles: From Scotland with Love

A documentary about the Marbles featuring Brian Cox and the Highland “model” for repatriation

Most of us know Brian Cox as the powerful media mogul from Succession, or perhaps as Agamemnon in the epic film Troy. But beyond Hollywood, the acclaimed Scottish actor has a very real connection to ancient Greece — and he’s not shy about it. In a new documentary focusing on the Parthenon Marbles, Cox passionately advocates for their return to Greece.

Director David Wilkinson, the British filmmaker behind the documentary, explains in an interview:

“Brian Cox is very clear that the Marbles should not be here. When I was looking for Scottish voices to feature — since Scotland has long led by example when it comes to repatriations — he immediately agreed to take part. He even says in the film that if Elgin had given the Marbles to a museum in Edinburgh, they’d have been sent back years ago.”

Wilkinson’s documentary, titled The Marbles, premieres this October at the Central Scotland Documentary Festival. True to its subtitle “From Scotland with Love,” the Highlands nation plays a leading role as an ethical example: Scotland was the first to return part of the famed Benin Bronzes to Nigeria, and Glasgow’s city council repatriated a ceremonial garment belonging to the Sioux tribe that had ended up in Europe after the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890.

“Elgin is the only real villain in the film — and the irony is that his own country becomes the hero,” says Wilkinson.
“We showcase governments that resolve repatriation cases, making the British government look increasingly out of touch.”

A chorus of voices and historical revelations

Alongside Brian Cox, the film features members of the British Committee for the Reunification of the Parthenon Marbles — including Janet Suzman, Paul Cartledge, and Victoria Hislop — as well as leading repatriation experts. Their testimonies, combined with Wilkinson’s deep dive into historical records and press archives, reveal that even Elgin himself was far from confident about the legality of his acquisition.

“We cover that thoroughly in the film,” says Wilkinson.
“Many British aristocrats back then looked down on him, seeing him as a looter. It was the golden age of the Grand Tour — the upper classes adored traveling to Greece and felt Elgin had stolen treasures meant to be admired in their original homeland.”

Challenges, closed doors, and unwavering resolve

Yet, despite strong public sentiment, Wilkinson found little financial support among some modern elites — ironically, from a few wealthy Greek shipowners and London’s well-heeled circles, who considered the issue trivial compared to the world’s bigger problems. Instead, it was everyday Greeks who contributed from their modest means to help the project.

The British Museum, too, was not always cooperative. Before George Osborne took over as chair, Wilkinson often found his emails unanswered — so he would show up in person, leaving handwritten notes to make his case. His commitment, however, never wavered. His fascination with Greece began in the 1970s during free public lectures at the British Museum and intensified in 2008 when he started researching the film in earnest, culminating in shooting that began symbolically on March 25, 2021 — Greek Independence Day.

Today, he says, fewer and fewer people believe the Marbles belong in Britain once they know the full story.

“That’s exactly why I made this film,” he says.
“Returning the Marbles is not just a matter of cultural heritage — it’s an issue of basic decency. Even if only ten people saw them at the Acropolis Museum — which is far from true — they still belong there. The British pride themselves on good manners, but holding onto stolen property for over 200 years is not good manners. It’s a disgrace.”

The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York Returns Three Ancient Sculptures to Iraq

This marks another positive step in the Met’s ongoing collaboration with foreign governments to repatriate antiquities.

Following an extensive investigation by experts, a Sumerian alabaster vessel and two Babylonian terracotta sculptures will be returned to Iraq. This announcement comes as part of the Met’s Cultural Heritage Initiative, an effort that includes thorough research into the provenance of objects in its collection. According to My Modern Met, the museum has also assembled a dedicated team of specialists to ensure that all acquisitions comply with legal and ethical standards.

The items being repatriated date back to the third to second millennia BCE. Specifically, the Sumerian vessel — notable for its base adorned with two rams — and a Babylonian female head were donated to the museum in 1982, while a Babylonian male head was purchased by the Met in 1972. Both the vessel and the male head were once sold by Robin Symes, a dealer notorious for trafficking looted antiquities. After working closely with the Manhattan District Attorney’s Office, the museum confirmed that these artifacts should rightfully be returned.

“The Met is committed to responsible collecting and to the careful stewardship of the world’s cultural heritage. We have made significant investments to accelerate provenance research into our collection. We are grateful for the ongoing dialogue with Iraq about future collaborations, and we look forward to working together to advance knowledge and appreciation of Iraqi art and culture,” said Max Hollein, the museum’s director, in a statement.

The return of these valuable antiquities is yet another example of the Met’s proactive partnerships with other nations to address issues of cultural heritage and ownership. These efforts have also paved the way for new cultural exchanges. Other recent initiatives include the return of a 7th-century BCE bronze griffin head to Greece and the transfer of ownership of two stone sculptures to Yemen under a historic custodial agreement — under this arrangement, the Met will care for and display the sculptures until Yemen requests their repatriation.

“The Only Way to Be Happy Is…” — Schopenhauer Weaves His Philosophy into Our Lives

Schopenhauer quote

Arthur Schopenhauer argued that true happiness does not lie in outward success but in genuine inner cheerfulness. When we see someone wealthy or attractive, we wonder if they’re truly happy — yet when we meet a genuinely cheerful person, we no longer care whether they’re rich or poor, young or old.

Cheerfulness, he says, is like an unexpected visitor — it shows up when it pleases, and we must welcome it wholeheartedly, without hesitation or doubt. The only way to be happy is to open the door wide when cheerfulness knocks, remembering that the present moment is the only piece of time we truly own.

Constantly analyzing whether we have a “good enough reason” to feel joy only sabotages joy itself, burdening it with worries and overthinking that yield no certain benefit. Cheerfulness, on the other hand, is an immediate gain: it brightens the now and enriches our experience of life.

The famously “grumpy” philosopher also reminds us that material comforts do little to boost our mood compared to good health, which he considers the bedrock of lasting cheerfulness. Physical well-being allows us to savor joy’s fruit — so it should come before any other pursuit. Taking conscious care of the body through rest, moderation, and exercise creates the fertile ground where happiness can truly take root.

Strikingly relevant today is Schopenhauer’s practical advice: move your body for at least two hours a day in the fresh air. A calm mind, he insists, needs open skies, deep breaths, and the feeling of muscles working and relaxing. In this way, happiness is revealed as a steady practice of caring for the body and fully inhabiting each moment — proving that we thrive when we embrace the simplicity of the present.

All that’s left now is to put it into practice!

(Read the literary excerpt below)

Schopenhauer, “The Art of Being Happy”

When we judge the happiness of someone rich, young, beautiful, or honored, what we really want to know is whether they are truly cheerful.

On the other hand, if someone is genuinely cheerful, we no longer care whether they are young or old, rich or poor — we know they are happy.

That’s why, whenever cheerfulness comes to visit, we should fling the door wide open. There is never an inappropriate time for its arrival.

Yet instead of doing exactly that, we question whether we have any real reason to feel joyful, fearing that cheerfulness might distract us from our “serious thoughts and worries.”

But what benefit do those worries bring us? Even we ourselves don’t know — while cheerfulness is the surest gain.

Its benefit lies directly in the present moment — the highest good for our existence, which, at its core, is nothing but an undivided present between two infinities.

Therefore, pursuing it must be an absolute priority.

It is certain too that nothing contributes less to a cheerful mood than external wealth — and nothing contributes more than good health.

So health should come before any other blessing, and we should consciously strive to maintain it at its highest level, so that we can enjoy its reward: cheerfulness.

We should also avoid excessive and prolonged mental strain, and make sure to move for at least two hours every day in the fresh air.

The Cave of Skeletons — A Hidden Greek Mystery

Tucked away on the edge of Kalymnos, near the area of Vlychadia, lies one of the Aegean’s most intriguing caves: the Cave of Skeletons.

Its name is far from accidental — it owes its eerie reputation to the human bones discovered inside, remnants from a distant past when prehistoric people sought shelter, performed burials, or held rituals in natural cavities.

Archaeologists who located and excavated the cave were astonished by the wealth of findings: human bones, stone tools, pottery fragments, and traces of fire. All of these point to the cave having been an active site of life and death since prehistoric times, likely during the Neolithic and early Bronze Age.

Despite its thriller-like name, the Cave of Skeletons is an invaluable archaeological treasure that offers profound insights into life on the Aegean islands thousands of years ago. It stands as a silent reminder that even in the most hidden corners of the earth, human history leaves its mark.

Infant Skeleton May Solve a Centuries-Old Mystery — A Macabre Ritual and Clues of Human Sacrifice

A team of Italian and German archaeologists has uncovered the skeletal remains of a newborn in the ancient Etruscan city of Kainua — today’s Marzabotto, near Bologna — shedding new light on a haunting question: Did the Etruscans practice human sacrifice?

The Etruscans, an ancient civilization that flourished in what is now central Italy during the first millennium BCE, are known to have had a sophisticated culture that deeply influenced Roman society. Yet historical sources — often written by Greek and Roman enemies — long accused them of performing ritual human sacrifices, particularly using prisoners of war, whose entrails priests would read to divine the future. For centuries, however, solid archaeological evidence was lacking.

What the Infant Skeleton Reveals

The skeletal remains, dated to between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, were found near a sacred temple wall dedicated to Uni, the Etruscan goddess of marriage, family, and fertility, and protector of women.

Scientific analyses confirmed that the infant — a local baby boy — had undergone ritual treatment before burial: the bones show clear signs of defleshing, but no dismemberment. The burial context, along with cut marks on some of the long bones, suggests intentional removal of soft tissue — a practice that may have held religious significance.

This discovery, detailed in Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, adds new weight to the centuries-old accounts that the Etruscans carried out sacrificial rites, though debate persists among historians.

A Sacred Foundation Offering

The baby’s remains were uncovered in a trench near ritual artifacts: pottery shards inscribed with dedications to the goddess Vei, cross symbols aligned with celestial bodies, and animal bones — all pointing to a ceremonial setting.

Researchers believe the placement indicates a “foundation sacrifice” — a ritual offering to consecrate the temple wall. The fragile skeleton was analyzed through CT scans and radiocarbon dating, confirming that the child was carried to full term (38–40 weeks) and likely died shortly after birth.

Human Sacrifice or Natural Death?

Could the baby have been stillborn and buried as an appeal for divine protection? The team considered this possibility, including the practice of embryotomy — a rare ancient procedure to extract a fetus during complicated labor — but the intact skeleton argues against it.

Ultimately, the match between the archaeological context and the anthropological evidence supports the hypothesis of a ritual sacrifice. The study also draws parallels with other Etruscan finds, such as child burials near defensive walls in Tarquinia and Orvieto, or animal offerings in sacred wells.

Infants as Mediators Between Humans and the Divine

Etruscan temples in Marzabotto (Kainua). Photo: Exif / Wikimedia Commons.

The researchers note that in various ancient Mediterranean cultures, including Greece and Rome, newborns were sometimes buried at transitional sites — near doorways or walls — symbolizing spiritual passage. As infants were not yet fully integrated into society, they were seen as suitable intermediaries with the divine.

Moreover, defleshing may have symbolized beliefs in rebirth, since bones were regarded as seeds of future life.

Caution and Limitations

Despite the compelling evidence, the authors acknowledge the limits of their study. There is no clear sign of fatal violence to prove intentional killing, and more such discoveries are needed to confirm whether this was common practice or an isolated event.

Nonetheless, this fragile skeleton brings us one step closer to understanding the complex, and sometimes grim, rituals of an ancient civilization whose secrets are still emerging from the earth.

Scientists Have Found Earth’s Real-Life Kryptonite — and It Could Power the Green Revolution in Electric Cars

A mineral that scientists are still working to fully decode may hold the key to a new green revolution — starting with the electric vehicle industry.

Kryptonite is famously known as Superman’s Achilles’ heel: the only material in the universe that can strip him of his superpowers. Originating from Krypton, Superman’s home planet, the glowing green substance emits a unique, toxic radiation that can weaken or even kill him. Of course, kryptonite is pure science fiction, a creation of comic books and Hollywood.

But researchers at London’s Natural History Museum believe a real-world version could deliver remarkable benefits here on Earth. Unlike its fictional counterpart, this mineral — called jadarite — is white, powdery, non-radioactive, and comes not from outer space but from Serbia.

Jadarite was first discovered in Serbia in 2004 by the mining company Rio Tinto. At first, even geologists were puzzled by its composition. Three years later, it was officially described by a team that included Natural History Museum scientists Chris Stanley and Mike Rumsey.

When they compared it to a database of all known minerals at the time, they were astonished to find it was entirely unique. Even more surprising: its chemical formula was strikingly similar (though not identical) to the fictional formula invented for kryptonite in the 2006 film Superman Returns. In the movie, the fake formula — “sodium lithium boron silicate hydroxide with fluorine” — appears on a kryptonite case stolen by Superman’s arch-nemesis, Lex Luthor.

This uncanny coincidence grabbed headlines back in 2007, but nearly two decades later, jadarite’s real potential is only now coming into focus.

What Makes Jadarite So Special?

Curiously, jadarite has so far been found in only one place on Earth: the Jadar Basin in Serbia, which gave the mineral its name. But there’s a silver lining: the deposit is vast enough that if mined, it could power a green transformation on a massive scale.

Scientists describe jadarite as forming in “layered cakes of materials that combine in a precise sequence.” This rare but promising lithium-bearing mineral could soon fuel Europe’s leap into a new era of electric vehicles, as traditional combustion engines are replaced by batteries.

“If mined, jadarite has enormous potential,” says Dr. Robin Armstrong, a geologist at the Natural History Museum in London.

Jadarite is rich in both boron and lithium — elements that are relatively rare and highly valuable to modern industries. Boron is used in fertilizers, heat-resistant glass for smartphones, and materials for wind turbines and solar panels. Meanwhile, lithium is a critical component in lithium-ion batteries that power electric cars.

According to researchers publishing in Nature Geoscience, if the jadarite in Serbia’s Jadar Basin is fully extracted, it could supply enough lithium to power up to 90% of Europe’s electric vehicles.

Scientists Crack a 100-Million-Year-Old Mystery About Platypus Sex Determination

For decades, scientists have known that platypuses and echidnas — Australia’s unique egg-laying mammals known as monotremes — stand out in the animal kingdom: they do not use the same genetic mechanisms as other mammals to determine whether an embryo develops as male or female.

Now, a recent study published in Genome Biology has provided compelling evidence that the sex of monotremes depends on a single gene — and, intriguingly, this gene resembles those found in certain fish and amphibians more than in other mammals.

Unraveling the Monotreme Secret

The Australian platypus and the echidna (also called the spiny anteater) are monotremes — the oldest living lineage of mammals, and the only mammals that lay eggs.

Humans and most other mammals have two sex chromosomes: X and Y. Typically, an embryo with an XX pair develops as female, while an XY pair produces a male.

In many mammals, a gene called SRY on the male Y chromosome triggers the development of male characteristics. But monotremes don’t have the SRY gene at all.

About 20 years ago, researchers discovered that monotremes use an entirely different system involving multiple X and Y chromosomes. It was long suspected that one of their Y chromosomes must carry a sex-determining gene — but its identity remained elusive.

Now, one candidate has emerged as the likely key player: the Anti-Müllerian Hormone, or AMH.

A Genetic Twist 100 Million Years in the Making

The new research offers the first solid evidence that a modified version of AMH found on one of the monotreme Y chromosomes — dubbed AMHY — is the gene that determines their sex.

The team demonstrated that evolutionary changes to the AMH gene long ago likely gave rise to AMHY, which then took on the critical role of steering male development in monotremes.

A First for Mammals

Unlike other mammalian sex-determining genes that work by interacting directly with DNA, AMHY functions as a hormone. Instead of binding to DNA, it acts on the cell’s surface, triggering signals that switch genes on or off.

There’s growing evidence that similar versions of AMHY also help determine sex in various fish and amphibians. However, this discovery marks the first known case of a hormone playing a central role in sex determination in mammals.

Closer Than Ever to Discovering Nature’s Fifth Fundamental Force

For decades, physicists have wondered whether there might be a fifth fundamental force at work in nature. Right now, four forces are known to govern the universe: electromagnetism, gravity, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force. But the big question remains: Could a fifth force exist that explains various anomalies in our observations?

Since the 1980s, researchers have proposed different ideas, ranging from concepts like antigravity to “quintessence” — a hypothetical force that might help explain dark energy. In 2015, a team from the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (which you can read about here) announced the discovery of a particle 30 times heavier than the electron, which could hint at a fifth force. Yet, many physicists remain skeptical, arguing that this elusive fifth force may simply not exist.

How Asteroids Are Helping in the Hunt

Asteroids — especially those whose paths are tracked with high precision, like Bennu — provide a unique natural laboratory for pushing the limits of physics. The idea is simple: If there’s an unknown force at play, it could cause tiny deviations in an asteroid’s orbit. If those deviations can’t be explained by the known four forces, scientists might have clues pointing toward new physics, according to a recent study published in Nature Communications Physics.

Although this study didn’t detect signs of a fifth force influencing Bennu’s motion, scientists are optimistic. The successor to the OSIRIS-REx mission, called OSIRIS-APEX, is set to deliver even more detailed data as it heads toward the asteroid Apophis.

How Old Are the Dead Sea Scrolls, Really?

Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls may be older than previously believed, and certain biblical texts might date back to the time of their original authors, according to new research.

The first of these ancient scrolls were discovered in the Qumran caves in the Judean Desert by Bedouin shepherds in the mid-20th century. Ranging from legal documents to portions of the Hebrew Bible, the manuscripts have traditionally been dated from the 3rd century BCE to the 2nd century CE, reports Nicola Davis for The Guardian.

Now, researchers from universities in the Netherlands, Denmark, and Italy have used artificial intelligence to gather new insights into the dates of individual scrolls—findings that could challenge established assumptions about when, where, and by whom they were produced.

“It’s like a time machine. We can now greet these people who lived 2,000 years ago and place them much more precisely in time,” said Mladen Popović, a professor at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands and lead author of the study, speaking to The Guardian.

Many scrolls were carbon dated back in the 1990s, but Popović notes that scholars at the time did not account for contamination from castor oil—a substance used in the 1950s to help specialists read the manuscripts—which could skew results. Moreover, many scrolls had been dated solely based on handwriting style analysis.

In their Plos One publication, the team describes how they performed carbon dating on 30 samples from different manuscripts found at four sites, covering an estimated timespan of five centuries. Importantly, the researchers first cleaned the samples to remove any castor oil contamination. Of the 30 samples, 27 were successfully carbon dated. They found that while two samples turned out to be more recent than previously thought, many others were actually older.

Among their discoveries, the team found that two distinct styles of Paleo-Hebrew script—known as Hasmonean and Herodian hands—coexisted for far longer than previously assumed. They also determined that a manuscript known as 4Q114, which contains verses from the Book of Daniel, is older than traditional palaeographic analysis had suggested.

“Previously, it was dated to the late second century BCE, about a generation after the Book of Daniel’s author. Now, our study pushes it back to the period when the author himself lived,” said Popović.

Authentic Dead Sea Scrolls as displayed at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science in 2018 (Helen H. Richardson/The Denver Post via Getty Images/Ideal Image)

The team then used a type of AI called machine learning to build a model named “Enoch”—a nod to the biblical figure associated with knowledge and wisdom.

They trained Enoch using 62 digital images of ink traces from 24 carbon-dated manuscripts, along with their radiocarbon ages. They then tested the model by showing it 13 new images from the same manuscripts. In 85% of cases, the AI’s estimated ages matched the carbon dating results—and often narrowed down the date range even more precisely.

“We created a very robust tool, grounded in empirical research. It’s based on physics and geometry,” Popović told The Guardian.

When presented with images from 135 undated scrolls it hadn’t seen before, Enoch generated realistic dating estimates for 79% of them, as judged by expert palaeographers. Popović added that in cases where the estimates seemed implausible, the issue likely stemmed from poor-quality images or problematic data.

This system has already yielded fresh insights: for example, a copy of Ecclesiastes (included in both the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament) appears to date to the period of its supposed author. According to Popović, Enoch could eventually date more scrolls without the need for destructive carbon dating, which requires taking tiny samples.

“There are more than 1,000 Dead Sea Scroll manuscripts, so our study is just a first but significant step. It opens a door to history with new possibilities for research,” he said.

Professor Joan Taylor, an expert at King’s College London, noted that the findings could have a major impact on Qumran studies. “These results imply that most of the scrolls found in the caves near Qumran were not written there, since the settlement wasn’t inhabited until later,” she said.

However, Dr. Matthew Collins of the University of Chester cautioned that radiocarbon dating reveals the age of the parchment, not necessarily when the text was written. He also questioned how stylistically representative the relatively small training sample was for different periods.

“Overall, this is a welcome study that adds a valuable new tool to our toolkit for dating such texts,” Collins said. “However, it’s a method that should be used carefully and alongside other evidence.”

16th-Century Shipwreck Found at Record Depth — Why Its Treasures Remained Almost Intact

A French Navy deep-sea exploration team, CEPHISMER, has made a stunning discovery: an uncharted shipwreck lying off the coast of Ramatuelle (Var, Provence) at an unprecedented depth.

The operation was part of France’s national strategy to strengthen maritime sovereignty while also advancing scientific knowledge of the ocean depths.

A Remarkably Preserved 16th-Century Merchant Ship

Measuring about 30 meters long and 7 meters wide, the shipwreck is believed to be a large 16th-century merchant vessel. Its remarkably intact cargo includes around 200 colorful faience jars, many of which remain embedded in the seabed sediment.

Faience pottery — glazed earthenware often associated with both ritual and daily uses — is a classic archaeological find. These vessels, typically made from fine-grained siliceous clay and coated with a shiny, colored glaze, are iconic remnants of Renaissance trade.

These round jars, with pressed necks and ribbon-style handles, feature decorative motifs in the Ligurian style. Many bear the “IHS” Christogram, widely used in Western Christian traditions, alongside intricate geometric and botanical patterns. The ship also carried about 100 plates, likely also of Ligurian origin.

Other artifacts found at the site include anchors, cannons, and cooking hearths, providing rare insights into daily life aboard a Renaissance-era merchant ship. Many more items still lie buried beneath the sand, waiting to be unearthed.

Photo: Drassm – Marine Nationale

A Unique Find for Underwater Cultural Heritage

According to France’s Mediterranean Maritime Prefecture and the Department of Underwater Archaeology (Drassm) at the Ministry of Culture, this is the deepest underwater cultural heritage discovery ever recorded within French jurisdiction.

Its exceptional depth has shielded the wreck from natural decay and looting, preserving it like a near-perfect time capsule from the 1500s. Nicknamed “Camarat 4,” the wreck offers an unprecedented opportunity for scientific study and historical analysis.

Planned next steps include detailed photogrammetric mapping, selective recovery of key artifacts, and a broad, interdisciplinary investigation by a team of experts ranging from naval architects and munitions specialists to ceramicists and conservationists.

A Reminder to Protect Our Seas

The discovery also highlights the urgent need to protect marine environments. Despite its remote location, researchers found traces of microplastics and larger plastic debris around the wreck, underscoring how human pollution reaches even the ocean’s hidden depths.

This remarkable find reinforces the importance of public awareness and conservation of our seas and underwater heritage. As France expands its deep-sea exploration capabilities, the Camarat 4 shipwreck marks a significant step in uncovering the ocean’s secrets — offering academics, scientists, and the public a glimpse into the lost stories of maritime archaeology.

6,000-Year-Old Venus Figurine Unearthed on Polish Farm Confirmed as a Historic Treasure

A remarkable discovery on a quiet Polish farm has turned out to be one of the country’s most extraordinary archaeological finds in decades — a limestone figurine dating back some 6,000 years.

Dubbed the “Venus of Kołobrzeg”, the small statue, which depicts a stylized female form, has been hailed by experts as the “find of the century.” It will now be displayed at the museum in Kołobrzeg, a city on Poland’s northern Baltic coast.

Measuring just 12 centimetres tall, the figurine was unearthed in December 2022 by a farmer in the village of Obroty, near Kołobrzeg. But only recently have researchers verified its authenticity and impressive age, placing it around the 5th millennium BC.

“I was informed that a local farmer had found an object resembling a human figure while working,” said Jan Orliński, head of a local historical society, in an interview with National Geographic.

Orliński’s team determined that the object was indeed crafted by human hands and likely served as a symbol of fertility. It was then handed over to the regional heritage conservator, who collaborated with the Polish Arms Museum in Kołobrzeg to establish its historical context.

“I can confidently say this is the find of the century,” declared the museum’s director, Aleksander Ostasz. “What has been unearthed is truly exceptional — it expands our understanding of Kołobrzeg’s ancient history in an extraordinary way.”

In an official statement, the museum emphasized that the figurine is unique in Poland, where no similar artifact has ever been uncovered. Experts believe it was created by some of the region’s earliest farmers who settled along the nearby Parsęta River.

“The stylized design of the Kołobrzeg Venus shows remarkable artistic skill. Despite its simplicity, it stands out for its aesthetic quality and clear depiction of feminine features,” the museum noted.

Venus figurines like this one, found across Europe, are generally believed to have had ritual or symbolic roles, often connected to fertility and femininity.

Closer examination has revealed subtle smoothing on the statue’s curves — especially around the breasts and hips — suggesting it was handled or used repeatedly. The figurine’s flat back indicates it may have been displayed upright or fixed to a base.

The Kołobrzeg City Museum, a branch of the Polish Arms Museum, is now preparing to present the Venus as part of its permanent exhibition — making it one of the oldest artifacts ever showcased there.

For context, the oldest known Venus figurine in Europe is the Venus of Hohle Fels, discovered in Germany in 2008 and dated to about 41,000 years ago. Another iconic example is the Venus of Willendorf, found in Austria in 1908 and estimated to be around 30,000 years old.

Captain Cook’s Long-Lost Ship Found After 250 Years — Where the Legendary Endeavour Lies Underwater

After 250 years shrouded in mystery, the final resting place of the Endeavour — the iconic ship that carried Captain James Cook and the first British expedition to Australia — has finally been confirmed.

Between 1768 and 1771, the Endeavour became the first European vessel to reach eastern Australia and to sail around New Zealand’s main islands.

While James Cook secured his place as one of history’s most celebrated explorers, his famous ship faded from memory, eventually being repurposed as a troop carrier.

In 1775, the ship was sold, renamed Lord Sandwich, and ultimately scuttled off the American coast in 1778 during the American Revolutionary War.

Where Was Cook’s Lost Ship Found?

Today, the sunken remains of the Endeavour have been located in Newport Harbor, Rhode Island, after experts officially matched the wreck to the one cataloged as RI 2394.

The confirmation was announced by the Australian National Maritime Museum (ANMM) in a new report, marking the end of 25 years of research with what they describe as a “definitive statement.”

“This final report is the culmination of 25 years of meticulous, painstaking archaeological investigation into this significant ship,” said the museum’s director, Daryl Karp.
“It involved underwater excavations in the U.S. and extensive research in institutions around the world.”

Experts reached their conclusion by comparing the wreck with historical plans of the Endeavour. They found timber beams precisely where the ship’s main and fore masts would have stood. The wreck’s measurements also match those recorded during a 1768 naval inspection before Cook’s epic voyage.

Portrait of James Cook / Photo: AP Photo

Additionally, wood analysis confirmed the material’s European origin, consistent with records showing the Endeavour underwent repairs in 1776 — years after its renowned expedition.

All of this adds up to a “weight of evidence” that strongly indicates the Newport wreck is indeed the Endeavour.

“The timbers are British,” said ANMM archaeologist Kieran Hosty.
“The dimensions of every beam — the so-called scantlings — match almost exactly with the Endeavour’s specs. We’re talking about differences within millimeters, not inches.”

“The bow joint is perfectly identical — a unique feature. We studied dozens of 18th-century ship plans and found nothing else like it,” Hosty added.

Photo: Painting by Samuel Atkins (1760–1810) — National Library of Australia

Disputed Waters: Controversy Over the Claim

However, the discovery is not without controversy. When the ANMM released a preliminary report in 2022 identifying RI 2394 as the Endeavour, their partners at the Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project (RIMAP) pushed back strongly.

In a statement, RIMAP insisted they were the lead researchers on the project and called the conclusions “premature” and a “breach of agreement.” Nevertheless, ANMM archaeologists maintain they have robust evidence.

Statue of James Cook / Photo: AP Photo

“The Lord Sandwich was intentionally sunk as a blockade ship,” said ANMM archaeologist James Hunter.
“The chances of finding an obvious identifier, like a ship’s bell, were always slim. Any valuable item would have been removed before the ship was sunk. But everything we’ve recovered so far clearly points to the 18th century.”

Hosty added:

“We’re never going to find something down there that literally says ‘Endeavour.’ There’s no plaque reading ‘Cook was here.’ Nor will we see a ship’s bell engraved ‘Endeavour,’ scratched out with ‘Lord Sandwich’ beneath it. What we do have is a chain of clues, all pointing to RI 2394 being HMB Endeavour.”

Preserving a Historic Wreck

Replica of the Endeavour / Photo: AP Photo

So far, only about 15% of the ship’s structure remains intact. Researchers are now focused on how best to protect and conserve what’s left for future generations.

In a follow-up statement, the ANMM acknowledged RIMAP’s “excellent historical analysis and detailed cataloguing of artefacts.”

“We recognise that RIMAP continues to accept that RI 2394 could be the Endeavour, while also noting there may be other possible wrecks,” the museum noted.

Daryl Karp also thanked the museum’s archaeological team, Dr Kathy Abass in Rhode Island, and the local state authorities for their invaluable support throughout the investigation.

On This Day: Eratosthenes Accurately Calculates the Earth’s Circumference – Over 2,000 Years Ago

Around 240 BCE, the Greek scholar Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who served as the head librarian at the Library of Alexandria, made a remarkably accurate estimate of the Earth’s circumference—without ever leaving Egypt.

Eratosthenes had heard that at Syene (modern Aswan), the Sun stood directly overhead at noon on the summer solstice, such that vertical objects cast no shadow. In contrast, in Alexandria, located north of Syene, vertical objects still cast a noticeable shadow at the same time. This discrepancy fascinated him.

Using a gnomon (a vertical stick or pole), he measured the angle of the shadow in Alexandria to be about 7.2 degrees, or 1/50th of a full circle. Knowing the approximate distance between Alexandria and Syene (roughly 5,000 stadia, an ancient Greek unit), he used simple geometry to calculate the Earth’s full circumference:

If 7.2° is 1/50th of a circle, then the total circumference = 50 × distance between the cities = 250,000 stadia.

Depending on the exact length of the stadion he used, this figure is astonishingly close to the modern measurement of Earth’s circumference (~40,075 km).

Eratosthenes’ method relied on empirical observation, deductive reasoning, and geometry—marking a major milestone in the development of science. His calculation not only confirmed that the Earth is spherical, but also demonstrated how logic and mathematics could reveal truths about the natural world on a grand scale.

Did Diogenes Really Exist? Searching for the Man Behind the Barrel

Was Diogenes the Cynic a real historical figure?
Doubts about the actual existence of Diogenes the Cynic arise mostly from the way his stories have come down to us.

We have no contemporary writings from his own hand, no treatises bearing his name; everything we know comes from texts written three, four, or even six centuries after he lived. The most prominent example is Diogenes Laertius, who compiled a patchwork of anecdotes—some philosophical, others purely comical.

This chronological gap is compounded by the nature of these tales themselves: Diogenes appears almost exclusively as a character in a moral skit, a paradoxical scene, or a prank mocking social norms. Each story feels crafted to be a witty bit of oral tradition, not a coherent biographical record. For this reason, some scholars—and skeptical lovers of antiquity—suggest that we might be dealing more with a myth than with an actual person.

A second source of doubt is the internal inconsistency of the sources. Regarding his exile from Sinope, some accounts say he personally debased the local currency; others claim it was his father’s doing; yet others say he simply misunderstood an oracle from Delphi. Even his death comes in four wildly different versions: suffocation, fever, a dog bite, or indigestion from eating raw octopus. Such variety undermines historical credibility, creating the impression of a figure onto whom later generations projected what one modern scholar calls “philosophical fantasies” of the post-Classical era.

Yet, those who argue for Diogenes’s existence have compelling evidence. First, there’s a numismatic clue: the city of Sinope once minted coins depicting an old man with a lantern—hinting that the famous exile was real enough to become a civic symbol. Moreover, writers closer to the fourth century BCE, like Menander and Teles the Cynic, mention him as an already well-known model of ascetic freedom—suggesting that the man’s reputation was firmly rooted before the legend grew.

Finally, certain biographical elements, like the debasement of the currency, are corroborated by independent inscriptions and by the historical fact that Sinope indeed punished someone for counterfeiting—something unlikely to have been invented later out of thin air.

So, why does the idea that “maybe Diogenes never existed” continue to intrigue us? First, because dismantling iconic figures is always an intellectual temptation. Second, because the Cynics themselves were masters of theater—deliberately inventing stories to shock, teach, and amuse.

Diogenes, with his lantern and barrel, has gathered so many tales that he seems almost “too perfect” to be true. But perhaps that’s where his deeper truth lies: as a philosopher who chose to become a living lesson, a performer in daily life, he wouldn’t have left behind neat pages of writings but rather stories embroidered and embellished by anyone who found them useful.

As modern research aptly puts it, “Diogenes’s brilliant exaggeration confirms rather than refutes his historicity; a life deliberately crafted as an example would not have endured for centuries if it hadn’t rested on some real foundation.” In the end, the debate about the “non-existent Diogenes” reflects less a lack of evidence than the tension between two ways of engaging with the past: either as a dry list of verifiable facts or as a living body of instructive myths that echo real—if paradoxical—human lives.

Whether he truly existed or not, the Cynic philosopher remains a shadow inviting us to decide what we really seek from history.

An Unknown Human Genetic Lineage Discovered in the Sahara

The Secret of the Sahara: A Hidden Genetic Legacy from a Time Before the Desert

Between about 14,500 and 5,000 years ago, the vast expanse we now know as the Sahara Desert was a lush, green landscape teeming with water and life. During this “Green Sahara” period, a mysterious and isolated human group thrived there—completely cut off from surrounding populations, as revealed by new genetic research.

Scientists investigating the origins of the region’s ancient inhabitants have now recovered the first complete genomes—detailed genetic blueprints—from the remains of two women buried at Takarkori, a site in southwestern Libya. These skeletons, dating back about 7,000 years, have provided a rare glimpse into a previously unknown chapter of human prehistory.

Takarkori was once home to early human communities, including at least 15 women and children discovered buried within a rocky shelter. These people lived by fishing and by herding sheep and goats—livestock that had already been domesticated elsewhere.

The “Green Sahara” – A Forgotten Eden
(Image Source: YouTube)

Genetic analysis revealed that the Takarkori people belonged to a distinct and until now unrecognized branch of the human family tree. They evolved separately from both sub-Saharan African populations to the south and Eurasian groups to the north for thousands of years.

“Interestingly, the Takarkori people show no significant genetic influence from sub-Saharan Africans or from prehistoric populations of the Near East and Europe,” explained Johannes Krause, a leading archaeogeneticist at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. “This suggests they remained genetically isolated, even though herding—a major cultural innovation—originated outside Africa.”

Artifacts found at Takarkori include tools made from stone, wood, and bone, as well as pottery, woven baskets, and carved figurines—evidence that these ancient people herded already domesticated animals rather than taming them locally.

(Excavation site at Takarkori – Image: YouTube)

The genomes also confirm that the Takarkori group represents a unique and ancient North African lineage that became separated from sub-Saharan populations about 50,000 years ago. Around the same time, other groups of early humans were migrating out of Africa toward the Middle East, Europe, and Asia—becoming the ancestors of all non-African peoples today.

(Skull recovered from the Takarkori excavation – Image: YouTube)

Krause noted that the Takarkori likely preserved a remnant of the genetic diversity once widespread in North Africa between 50,000 and 20,000 years ago. “After 20,000 years ago, we see evidence of new groups arriving from the Eastern Mediterranean, followed by migrations from the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily about 8,000 years ago. But for reasons we don’t yet fully understand, the Takarkori remained isolated far longer than expected. Since the Sahara only became habitable again about 15,000 years ago, their true homeland remains uncertain.”

This community seems to have maintained its genetic separation for nearly its entire existence, until a dramatic climate shift changed everything. When the African Humid Period—a warm, wet era—ended around 3,000 BCE, the once-fertile region gradually transformed back into the vast desert we see today.

Unlike other early humans who left Africa and interbred with Neanderthals in Eurasia—leaving genetic traces still detectable in modern non-African DNA—the Takarkori people show minimal signs of such mixing, implying only limited contact with other human groups.

For decades, researchers studied the Takarkori skeletons and artifacts but struggled to extract viable DNA due to the challenging preservation conditions. In 2019, they managed to isolate only mitochondrial DNA, which traces maternal ancestry but offers an incomplete picture.

A breakthrough came when advanced techniques enabled scientists at the Max Planck Institute in Leipzig to recover enough DNA from two mummies to sequence their full genomes. This achievement shed light not only on these individuals’ ancestry but also on the genetic history of an entire lost population of the Sahara.

An Extinct Human Lineage Revealed by the Oldest DNA: Who They Were and What Became of Them

Around 45,000 years ago, during the frigid depths of the last Ice Age, a new wave of humans pushed into Europe from the southeast. But this continent wasn’t empty — it was already home to the Neanderthals, a distinct branch of the human family tree. For roughly 5,000 years, these two human populations coexisted. They shared the same harsh landscapes — and sometimes, even their genes. That genetic legacy endures: today, nearly all non-African populations carry 2–3% Neanderthal DNA.

Yet, these earliest modern Europeans remained a mystery. Who were they? How did they live? And why did their genetic line vanish? A groundbreaking scientific study is now providing some long-awaited answers.

Fossil Clues from Germany and the Czech Republic

In a cave in Thuringia, Germany — known as Ranis — researchers unearthed exceptionally fragile human bones, including remains of infants. Dating estimates place them between 42,000 and 49,000 years old. Among the remains, scientists identified a mother and child pair.

Further east, in the Czech Republic, archaeologists had previously discovered a woman’s skull in Zlatý kůň Cave. Though separated by hundreds of kilometers, the two sites were long thought unrelated.

However, ancient DNA analysis revealed an unexpected connection: the woman from the Czech Republic and two individuals from Ranis were fifth- or sixth-degree relatives — something like distant cousins.

This discovery suggests they weren’t isolated nomads but part of a much wider population spread across vast regions of prehistoric Europe.

Stone Tools Speak Volumes

Ranis Cave has long intrigued archaeologists for its distinctive stone tools, known as LRJ (Lincombian–Ranisian–Jerzmanowician) industries. For decades, scholars debated: were these tools the handiwork of Neanderthals or the first modern humans?

The answer lay buried alongside the tools themselves. DNA evidence made it clear: these tools were crafted by early modern humans. Given that the woman from Zlatý kůň belonged to the same population, it’s likely she too used — or at least knew of — these tools, even though none were found with her remains.

A Lost Branch of Humanity

Among the Ranis skeletons, one individual — dubbed “Ranis13” — yielded DNA so well-preserved that scientists reconstructed his entire genome in remarkable detail.

The results were surprising: like the woman from Zlatý kůň, Ranis13 left no surviving descendants. Their genetic line did not persist in any present-day population.

They were not completely unrelated to us, though — their DNA carries the same ancient Neanderthal inheritance found in all non-Africans today. But unlike other humans of the same era, they show no signs of later interbreeding with Neanderthals. Perhaps they took a different migration route into Europe — or simply never crossed paths with Neanderthals again.

How Many Were There? And What Did They Look Like?

By analyzing shared genetic traits, researchers estimate this population consisted of only a few hundred people, scattered across a wide area.

They were few in number, living in a harsh and unforgiving environment. Cold, scarce resources, and competition with long-established Neanderthals made their survival precarious.

As for their appearance? Their DNA suggests they had dark skin, dark hair, and brown eyes — features typical of people with recent African ancestry, which they indeed had.

“These findings give us a clearer window into the very first pioneers who reached Europe,” said Professor Johannes Krause, a lead researcher on the study.

A Fleeting Chapter, A Lasting Legacy

This lost human lineage did not become our direct ancestors. Yet they were human, just like us. Their passage through history was brief, but their story — preserved in bone and stone — survives as a testament to an attempt, a migration, a connection that ultimately vanished.

The Louvre Brought to Its Knees by Overtourism: Staff Strike Shuts Down the Iconic Museum

Visitors to the Louvre faced an unpleasant surprise on Monday, June 16th: staff members staged a sudden walkout, refusing to take up their posts in protest against working conditions that, they say, have become unbearable — largely due to overtourism and the massive crowds pouring daily into the world’s most popular museum.

Recently, French President Emmanuel Macron unveiled a ten-year rescue plan to tackle the Louvre’s mounting challenges: leaky roofs, abrupt temperature fluctuations, aging infrastructure, and chronic overcrowding. But for the employees on the front lines, this plan feels far too distant to offer any immediate relief. “We can’t wait six years,” said staff member Sarah Sefian pointedly. “It’s not just about the art — it’s also about the people who protect it.”

The museum’s visitor numbers paint a striking picture. Last year alone, the Louvre welcomed 8.7 million visitors — more than double the capacity for which it was originally designed. Even with a daily limit of 30,000 guests, employees say that working at the Louvre has turned into a daily endurance test, especially during the summer when limited rest areas and bathrooms collide with stifling heat.

The situation reaches its peak at the museum’s most famous room: the Salle des États, home to Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa. Each day, roughly 20,000 people squeeze into this single hall just to snap a quick photo of the masterpiece. “You don’t actually see the painting,” Ji-Hyun Park, a visitor from Seoul, Korea, told The Washington Post. “You see phones, elbows — and you feel the heat. And then they push you out.”