• MAIN PAGE
  • LATEST NEWS
    • Lost Cities
    • Archaeology's Greatest Finds
    • Underwater Discoveries
    • Greatest Inventions
    • Studies
    • Blog
  • PHILOSOPHY
  • HISTORY
  • RELIGIONS
    • Africa
    • Anatolia
    • Arabian Peninsula
    • Balkan Region
    • China - East Asia
    • Europe
    • Eurasian Steppe
    • Levant
    • Mesopotamia
    • Oceania - SE Asia
    • Pre-Columbian Civilizations of America
    • Iranian Plateau - Central Asia
    • Indus Valley - South Asia
    • Japan
    • The Archaeologist Editor Group
    • Scientific Studies
    • Aegean Prehistory
    • Historical Period
    • Byzantine Middle Ages
    • Predynastic Period
    • Dynastic Period
    • Greco-Roman Egypt
  • Rome
  • PALEONTOLOGY
  • About us
Menu

The Archaeologist

  • MAIN PAGE
  • LATEST NEWS
  • DISCOVERIES
    • Lost Cities
    • Archaeology's Greatest Finds
    • Underwater Discoveries
    • Greatest Inventions
    • Studies
    • Blog
  • PHILOSOPHY
  • HISTORY
  • RELIGIONS
  • World Civilizations
    • Africa
    • Anatolia
    • Arabian Peninsula
    • Balkan Region
    • China - East Asia
    • Europe
    • Eurasian Steppe
    • Levant
    • Mesopotamia
    • Oceania - SE Asia
    • Pre-Columbian Civilizations of America
    • Iranian Plateau - Central Asia
    • Indus Valley - South Asia
    • Japan
    • The Archaeologist Editor Group
    • Scientific Studies
  • GREECE
    • Aegean Prehistory
    • Historical Period
    • Byzantine Middle Ages
  • Egypt
    • Predynastic Period
    • Dynastic Period
    • Greco-Roman Egypt
  • Rome
  • PALEONTOLOGY
  • About us

Denmark to remove Copenhagen’s “pornographic and very primitive” mermaid statue

August 16, 2025

A public dispute has broken out in Denmark over a large mermaid statue set to be removed after critics labelled it “ugly,” “pornographic,” and an unrealistic male fantasy of the female body.

The 4x6 metre granite work, known as Den Store Havfrue (“the Big Mermaid”), currently stands at Dragør Fort, part of Copenhagen’s historic sea defences. According to reports, the Danish Agency for Palaces and Culture has decided it does not suit the 1910 landmark’s cultural heritage, prompting its removal.

Art critic Mathias Kryger, writing in Politiken, called the sculpture “ugly and pornographic.” Sorine Gotfredsen, a priest and journalist for Berlingske, argued that a statue representing a man’s idealised female form undermines women’s ability to feel comfortable with their own bodies. She welcomed the backlash, saying it was healthy to reject what she described as vulgar and oversexualised depictions of the female form in public spaces.

The sculptor, Peter Bech, rejects these criticisms, insisting the mermaid’s proportions simply match the work’s overall scale. Some commentators suggest the controversy reflects wider societal discomfort with women’s bodies, rather than an inherent problem with the statue. Berlingske debate editor Aminata Corr Thrane likened the focus on the mermaid’s chest to body shaming, questioning why public depictions of bare breasts must conform to certain “approved” shapes and sizes.

Corr Thrane noted that, compared to the world-famous Little Mermaid statue, Bech’s creation is actually “less naked” but has larger breasts, which she suspects is the real source of contention. She suggested the two statues might symbolise opposing cultural ideals about womanhood—and the tension over defining what is “right” or “wrong” in female representation.

The Big Mermaid was first installed in 2006 near the Little Mermaid on Langelinie Pier but was moved in 2018 after being dismissed by locals as “fake” and “vulgar.” It later found a home at Dragør Fort until the agency requested its removal in March. Dragør municipality has also turned down Bech’s offer to donate the work, saying it takes up too much space.

Bech says the statue was created as a response to tourist complaints that the Little Mermaid was too small. He claims many Dragør residents admire his sculpture and hopes to keep it in the town. The Danish Agency for Palaces and Culture has not commented on the dispute.

Tags News

Aeneas and the Future of Epigraphy: Google DeepMind’s AI Model Reshaping Historical Interpretation

August 5, 2025

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


In a significant leap forward for the digital humanities, Google DeepMind has unveiled Aeneas, a state-of-the-art AI model trained to analyze, restore, contextualize, and connect thousands of ancient Latin inscriptions. Named after the mythic Trojan hero whose journey laid the legendary foundations of Rome, Aeneas marks a new era in the relationship between artificial intelligence and historical research.

A New Approach to Inscriptions

Where previous models like Pythia or Ithaca focused primarily on reconstructing damaged texts, Aeneas introduces a more holistic method. It operates not merely as a restorer but as a contextual interpreter, capable of suggesting parallels, estimating chronology and geography, and identifying recurring patterns across large corpora of epigraphic material.

Trained on a dataset of over 174,000 Latin inscriptions, the model can interpret fragmentary evidence, propose plausible restorations of missing sections, and return semantically similar texts—even when they don’t share explicit vocabulary. This opens new pathways for understanding inscriptions not as isolated finds, but as part of a broader intertextual and historical landscape.

Multimodal Capabilities and Performance

One of Aeneas’ most innovative features is its multimodal architecture. Unlike traditional language models, it can analyze not only textual transcriptions but also images of the inscribed stones themselves. By incorporating visual cues—such as layout, material, and carving style—it achieves high levels of accuracy in dating and regional attribution.

  • Dating precision: The model can estimate the age of inscriptions within a ±13-year margin, significantly outperforming experts who average ±31 years.

  • Geographic attribution: It accurately identifies the province of origin for an inscription from among 62 Roman provinces, achieving 72% accuracy using both text and imagery.

  • Restoration performance: Aeneas demonstrates 73% top-20 accuracy in reconstructing arbitrary-length missing segments—a notable feat in handling fragmentary Latin.

Connecting the Past: The Parallels Function

Perhaps the most transformative function is Aeneas’ ability to suggest relevant parallels. When given a fragmentary or complete inscription, it returns a ranked list of other inscriptions that share structural, thematic, or formulaic features. This capability mimics the interpretive process of expert epigraphers, who draw on years of exposure to formulae, provincial customs, and linguistic patterns to contextualize individual finds.

In practical testing, 23 professional historians collaborated with DeepMind to assess the model’s interpretive suggestions. The use of AI-assisted parallels led to a 44% increase in confidence during scholarly evaluations and was rated helpful in over 90% of cases.

Implications for Scholarship and Methodology

The emergence of Aeneas challenges longstanding boundaries between machine processing and historical interpretation. Rather than supplanting expertise, the model functions as an augmented cognitive tool, offering accelerated comparisons and inferential suggestions that would take weeks or months by conventional means.

Its capacity to identify connections across inscriptions—spanning diverse regions, time periods, and formats—enables new kinds of historiographical synthesis. For example:

  • A fragment from Germania might now be interpreted alongside an administrative edict from Syria based on shared formulae, shedding light on the bureaucratic commonalities of imperial peripheries.

  • Dating uncertainties can be narrowed more confidently when contextual parallels and visual style align across the database.

Yet, this power invites caution. The interpretive authority must remain with the scholar, who understands local idiosyncrasies, epigraphic conventions, and historical nuance. AI models offer suggestions, not conclusions—and their results must always be triangulated with material context and expert critique.

Open Access and Future Horizons

DeepMind has made Aeneas accessible via the interactive website predictingthepast.com, with datasets and code openly available. This democratizes access to high-level computational tools, allowing scholars, students, and heritage institutions to integrate AI into both research and teaching environments.

While Aeneas currently focuses on Latin, its architecture lays the groundwork for expansion into other ancient languages—especially Greek, where vast corpora of inscriptions await similar treatment. Extensions to Coptic, Demotic, Aramaic, or even cuneiform would further amplify its significance across Mediterranean and Near Eastern studies.

Aeneas does not merely automate a scholarly task; it reshapes how that task is conceived. It offers a glimpse into a future where humanistic inquiry and machine learning collaborate to illuminate the fragmentary, scattered traces of antiquity with greater coherence and contextual richness than ever before.

It is not a substitute for epigraphy—it is its ally, a digital companion in the ever-evolving pursuit of understanding the written past.


Acknowledgements

The research was co-led by Yannis Assael and Thea Sommerschield

Contributors include: Alison Cooley, Brendan Shillingford, John Pavlopoulos, Priyanka Suresh, Bailey Herms, Jonathan Prag, Alex Mullen and Shakir Mohamed. The Aeneas web interface was developed by Justin Grayston, Benjamin Maynard, and Nicholas Dietrich, and is powered by Google Cloud.

The syllabus was developed by Robbe Wulgaert, Sint-Lievenscollege, Ghent, Belgium.

Tags News, Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Scientists found evidence for the existence of Moses - Is The Exodus confirmed?

August 3, 2025

Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions and the Name of Moses: A Reexamination of New Archaeological Claims

Recent claims concerning a set of ancient inscriptions discovered in Egypt's Sinai Peninsula have drawn significant attention in the fields of epigraphy, archaeology, and biblical studies. These inscriptions, carved in the Proto-Sinaitic script and dating to the Middle Kingdom period of ancient Egypt (circa 1800 BCE), have been interpreted by independent epigrapher Michael S. Bar-Ron as potentially containing the earliest known reference to the biblical figure of Moses.

The inscriptions in question were found at the Serabit el-Khadim turquoise mines, a remote and historically significant mining complex in the southern Sinai. The site was active during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III and served as both a mining operation and a religious center dedicated to the Egyptian goddess Hathor. Numerous Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions have been documented at the site since the early 20th century, when Flinders Petrie and his team first excavated the area. These inscriptions, created by Semitic-speaking laborers, are widely considered among the earliest examples of alphabetic writing, representing a transitional stage between Egyptian hieroglyphics and later Semitic alphabets.

The ancient inscription that, according to Bar-Ron, reads, “This is from Moses.” (© 2025 Image Courtesy of Michael S. Bar-Ron All Rights Reserved, © 2025 Graphic Element by Patterns of Evidence Foundation)

Bar-Ron has focused on two inscriptions, cataloged as Sinai 357 and Sinai 361, which he interprets as containing the sequences "ZT MŚ" ("This is from MŚ") and "NʾUM MŚ" ("A saying of MŚ"). He argues that the combination "MŚ" could correspond to an early alphabetic rendering of the name Moses, making this a potentially groundbreaking epigraphic discovery. These inscriptions, according to Bar-Ron, function as signatures or authorial statements, which would imply a level of scribal literacy and self-representation among the Semitic workers who created them.

Additional elements found in other inscriptions at the site include references to the Semitic deity El, possible depictions of dissent or departure, and even imagery that has been associated with the "golden calf" episode from the Exodus narrative. These have been interpreted by Bar-Ron as indications of theological and ideological conflict between monotheistic Yahwistic groups and polytheistic cults devoted to deities such as Hathor or Ba‘alat.

Proto-Sinaitic Inscription, Sinai 349, with letters spelling, ‘Ba’alat,‘ the Semitic version of the Egyptian cow goddess, Hathor, highlighted. (© 2025 Image Courtesy of Michael S. Bar-Ron All Rights Reserved, © 2025 Graphic Element by Patterns of Evidence Foundation)

Support for Bar-Ron's hypothesis has come from some within the academic and biblical archaeology communities. His advisor, Dr. Pieter van der Veen, has publicly affirmed the plausibility of the interpretation. Various popular outlets and religious media have amplified the findings, suggesting that they may constitute early physical evidence confirming key figures and themes from biblical tradition.

However, the claims remain highly controversial and have not yet undergone formal peer review. Several scholars in the fields of Egyptology and Semitic epigraphy have expressed skepticism. Critics have noted that Proto-Sinaitic script remains only partially deciphered, and that assigning precise linguistic values to these inscriptions is fraught with uncertainty. The script’s characters are often ambiguous and open to multiple interpretations, particularly when found in isolated or eroded contexts.

Moreover, the use of the sequence "MŚ" as a reference to Moses is far from certain. While "Mose" or "Moshe" is a well-known Hebrew name, it is not unique in the ancient Near East, and similar consonantal structures appear in other names and words. The presence of such a sequence alone does not necessarily confirm a reference to the biblical figure, nor does it establish a historical connection to the Exodus tradition.

Bar-Ron’s scan of a Serabit el-Khadim inscription, with notes identifying pieces of this ancient writing. (© 2025 Image Courtesy of Michael S. Bar-Ron All Rights Reserved, © 2025 Graphic Element by Patterns of Evidence Foundation)


Scholars have also raised concerns regarding methodological rigor. Without broader archaeological context—such as stratified material layers, associated artifacts, or corroborative texts—the interpretation of brief and fragmentary inscriptions is speculative. The possibility remains that the glyphs reflect common graffiti, religious expressions, or names of ordinary laborers rather than statements by or about a singular historical figure.

In addition, the proposed connections between the inscriptions and the Exodus narrative are considered circumstantial. The absence of explicit references to Israel, the plagues, the crossing of the Red Sea, or Mount Sinai itself limits the extent to which the inscriptions can be seen as confirming biblical accounts. While some themes may overlap, they do not provide conclusive narrative parallels.

Despite these criticisms, the inscriptions are undeniably significant for the study of early alphabetic writing and the cultural exchanges that occurred in Egyptian-controlled regions of the Sinai during the Bronze Age. The Proto-Sinaitic script, generally believed to be the ancestor of Phoenician and ultimately all modern alphabetic scripts, demonstrates how Semitic-speaking laborers adapted Egyptian symbols to express their own language. This process marks a turning point in the history of writing, and the Serabit el-Khadim corpus remains central to understanding this development.

A scan of Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions, perhaps worshiping the Israelite deity El, that were found at Serabit el-Khadim, along with the possible signature of Moses. (© 2025 Image Courtesy of Michael S. Bar-Ron All Rights Reserved, © 2025 Graphic Element by Patterns of Evidence Foundation)

If further research, including high-resolution imaging, 3D scanning, and comparative epigraphic analysis, supports any of the proposed interpretations, it may encourage a reevaluation of the historical plausibility of some biblical narratives. Until then, the hypothesis that these inscriptions contain the name or signature of Moses remains a subject of debate.

Ongoing discussions are expected within academic circles, and further publications are anticipated. The case exemplifies the complexities of interpreting early inscriptions and the need for careful, multi-disciplinary scrutiny when drawing conclusions that intersect with deeply rooted historical and religious traditions.

In conclusion, while the findings at Serabit el-Khadim are certainly intriguing, they remain inconclusive. The identification of Moses in Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions is a hypothesis that must be tested against established epigraphic methods and broader archaeological evidence. As with many discoveries in ancient history, the balance between possibility and proof continues to shape the discourse.

Tags Archaeology's Greatest Finds, News

Naxos, Greece: Outrage Over Disrespectful Behavior by Visitors at Island’s Archaeological Site

August 2, 2025

Naxos: Outrage Over Disrespectful Behavior by Visitors at Island’s Archaeological Site

Images showing disrespectful behavior by tourists at the archaeological site of the Delian Apollo sanctuary (Portara) on Naxos have sparked widespread anger and frustration, not only among locals but also more broadly online. Among the images circulating are one of a shirtless young man lifting an ancient stone with both hands, and another of a family having a picnic with skewers and soft drinks among the ruins.

The Portara, the iconic marble gateway that greets visitors arriving by boat at the northern edge of Naxos harbor, is the most recognizable landmark of the island. It is part of the Delian Apollo sanctuary, an unorganized archaeological site that remains open and free to the public—meaning it has no entrance fee, but also no permanent security. As such, its protection relies solely on the awareness and respect of visitors, something that, unfortunately, cannot be taken for granted, as recent events have shown.

The Mayor of Naxos, said the Greek Ministry of Culture was immediately informed of the incidents. Since yesterday, a guard has been assigned to supervise the site, though it is still unclear whether this will be a permanent measure.

“What the municipality and the island’s residents want—and we’ve submitted this formally to the Ministry of Culture—is the on-site restoration and development of this archaeological area. We’re asking for proper conservation and an organized management system with a ticketing process and permanent security. This would not only ensure the site's protection but also generate revenue to be reinvested in cultural heritage,” the mayor said. He also praised the valuable work being done on Naxos by the head of the Cyclades Antiquities Ephorate, Dimitris Athanasoulis.

It should be noted, however, that the Naxos municipality recently clashed with the Ministry of Culture over plans to relocate major antiquities—specifically, the Kouros statues of Flerio—to the new Archaeological Museum currently under construction in the town of Chora. During a recent municipal council meeting, in which Mr. Athanasoulis presented studies highlighting the need to move the statues for their protection, both the mayor and residents voiced strong opposition. They even threatened legal action to prevent such a move.

“We are indeed against relocating antiquities from their original settings,” Mayor Lianos confirmed to protothema.gr, adding that the municipality is urging the Ministry of Culture “to reconsider and re-prioritize some of its current plans.”

Tags News

The restored archaeological site of Poliochni

Lemnos, Greece: Restoration of the Archaeological Site of Poliochni, “The Oldest City in Europe,” Completed

August 2, 2025

By Babis Kokosis, ertnews.gr

Two days ago, the restored archaeological site of Poliochni, located on the eastern coast of Lemnos, was officially inaugurated in the presence of Minister of Culture Lina Mendoni, local authorities, and a large crowd. Poliochni, often described as “the oldest city in Europe,” is considered one of the most important prehistoric settlements of the Aegean, offering unique evidence of early urban and social organization dating back to the 3rd millennium BCE.

In her address, the Minister of Culture emphasized:
“Poliochni is a unique example of historical continuity and the exceptional cultural richness of the Aegean. It is not merely an important archaeological site; it is tangible proof of early social and urban organization, commercial extroversion—particularly due to metallurgy—and human creativity, dating from the 3rd millennium BCE.
Lemnos, a place deeply connected to mythology, was the home of the god Hephaestus, the divine smith, and his sons, the Cabeiri. It is here that the paths of Hypsipyle and Jason cross, in one of the most emblematic narratives of ancient Greek mythology—elements that reinforce Lemnos' timeless identity and make it a reference point in Aegean civilization.
The archaeological sites of Poliochni on Lemnos, Thermi on Lesbos, Emporio on Chios, and Palamari on Skyros form a unique cultural route that highlights and documents the richness of the 3rd and 2nd prehistoric millennia in the Aegean.

One of the most important prehistoric settlements of the Aegean


The restoration of the archaeological site of Poliochni was completed with a total budget of approximately €5,000,000, funded by the North Aegean Regional Operational Programme (NSRF 2014–2020) and the Recovery and Resilience Facility managed by the Ministry of Culture.
Every cultural project we implement—whether related to archaeological sites or museums—is not merely an act of conservation and promotion of our cultural heritage but a dynamic investment in the future of our land. Cultural heritage is a lever for development. It strengthens the local economy, creates opportunities, inspires the younger generation, and unites societies through memory and knowledge. That is our goal: to preserve and highlight the history of Lemnos and turn it into a source of sustainable development and creativity.”

One of the Most Important Prehistoric Settlements of the Aegean

The restoration project of the archaeological site included extensive interventions across all sectors of the settlement: the central, southern, and western areas. Specifically, 22 building blocks were preserved and restored over a total area of 12 acres. The southern enclosure wall was cleaned and reinforced, and an open-air event space was created.

Accessibility to the site was improved, and new public infrastructure was established. Special emphasis was placed on the educational aspect of the project, with the implementation of programs for people with disabilities and the enrichment of site content through interactive applications and digital games.
Lina Mendoni warmly thanked the North Aegean Region for its substantial and consistent cooperation, as well as the Ephorate of Antiquities of Lesbos for its dedication, methodical approach, and effectiveness in all projects carried out on the islands under its jurisdiction.

The Parliament of Poliochni


History of the Settlement

Poliochni was uncovered in 1930 during excavations by the Italian Archaeological School at Athens, led by its then-director, Alessandro Della Seta. Alongside Troy, located across the Aegean on the coast of Asia Minor, Poliochni is one of the most well-known acropoleis of the 3rd millennium BCE in the entire northern Aegean.

The settlement was enclosed by walls, which were imposing primarily on the western side, where the proximity of a river necessitated stronger protection of the foundations against erosion. At least in its early phase, the settlement appears not to have required military defense. It was home to a peaceful population of about one thousand people, who spent their days farming and herding, returning each evening to the settlement—a practice still common among local farmers today.
This regular communal rhythm likely gave rise to some form of rudimentary social organization.

The Bouleuterion of Poliochni

The construction of wells with stone linings reaching depths of over 9 meters, the maintenance of walls, roads, and rainwater collection systems, as well as the public squares where residents gathered during festivals or leisure time, were all undertakings that required coordination, prioritization, and mutual agreement.

Thanks to its metalworking industry and strategic location at the gateway of the Hellespont straits, Poliochni emerged as a major hub in the broader northern Aegean region during the 3rd millennium BCE. It became the earliest known urban center and the first commercial port in Europe.

The findings from Poliochni support the view that a distinct prehistoric civilization developed in the islands of the northeastern Aegean, autonomous from the better-known Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean cultures of the same era.

Tags News

Glass and decorative beads recovered from the Viking burials. Credit: Moesgaard Museum

Elite Viking Family Tombs Discovered in Denmark Hint at Ties to King Harald Bluetooth

June 29, 2025

A remarkable archaeological find near Aarhus, Denmark, has brought to light approximately 30 Viking-era graves that may belong to a powerful aristocratic family, potentially connected to the court of King Harald Bluetooth—the 10th-century monarch who unified Denmark and Norway.

Found at a construction site in Lisbjerg, just north of modern Aarhus, the cemetery dates to the late 900s. Excavations by Moesgaard Museum experts revealed a lavish assortment of burial gifts—including coins, ceramic vessels, glass beads, and other luxury items—signaling that those interred were of elevated social status and engaged in far-reaching trade networks.

Signs of High Rank and Royal Affiliation

Archaeologist Liv Stidsing Reher‑Langberg described the assemblage as “quite special,” noting the variety in grave opulence. The disparities suggest a nuanced social structure—perhaps the remains of a ruling household, including both family and enslaved individuals.
Crucially, a fortified noble farm discovered nearby in the 1980s likely belonged to an aristocrat—possibly an earl or steward serving under King Harald Bluetooth.

The Rare and Splendid Casket

🔍 Significance & Outlook

  • Power and Politics: The tombs reflect a structured, hierarchical community, likely ruled by a local chieftain operating just below royal authority.

  • Women’s Roles: The ornate female burial suggests noblewomen held both material wealth and cultural significance.

  • Connectivity: Exotic goods in the graves reinforce the idea of the Viking world as a dynamic nexus of trade and exchange.

  • Historical Impact: These findings deepen our understanding of King Harald Bluetooth’s reign and the socio-political entanglements between his court and regional elites.

This discovery at Lisbjerg enriches the narrative of Viking society—infusing it with evidence of regional elites who were deeply connected to royal dynasties, spiritual traditions, and expansive trade networks.

Tags News

Egypt’s Move to Take Over Historic Saint Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai Alarms Christian Communities Worldwide

May 30, 2025

The recent developments concerning Saint Catherine's Monastery in Sinai have sparked significant concern and controversy. A court ruling in Egypt has led to the nationalization of the monastery's property, with reports indicating plans to convert the historic site into a museum and evict the residing monks. This decision has been met with strong opposition from the Greek Orthodox Church and the Greek government, who view it as a violation of religious freedoms and a threat to a vital spiritual and cultural landmark.

Archbishop Ieronymos of Athens and All Greece has condemned the move, expressing deep sorrow and calling for immediate action to protect the monastery. He emphasized the monastery's significance as a beacon of Orthodoxy and Hellenism, now facing an existential threat.

In response to the backlash, Egyptian authorities have denied the reports of closure and eviction. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs clarified that the court ruling does not infringe upon the monastery's spiritual value or its affiliated archaeological sites. They affirmed that the monastery's legal status is preserved, and the monks retain the right to benefit from the religious and archaeological sites within the region.

The situation remains complex, with ongoing diplomatic discussions between Greece and Egypt. The Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs is seeking further clarification, emphasizing the importance of adhering to previous agreements that safeguard the monastery's sacred status.

Saint Catherine's Monastery, founded in the 6th century by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, is recognized as the world's oldest continuously operating Christian monastery. It holds immense religious, historical, and cultural significance, not only for the Orthodox Christian community but also for the broader international community.

As the situation unfolds, the global community watches closely, hopeful for a resolution that honors the monastery's profound legacy and ensures its preservation for future generations.

Tags News

Ancient Egyptian depictions of the Israelites.

Reevaluating Israelite Origins: New Genetic and Cultural Evidence Suggests Steppe Ancestry

May 24, 2025

A recent interdisciplinary study by Johan Oosthuizen, titled “The Aryan Hypothesis: Identifying the Israelites”, challenges the prevailing view that the ancient Israelites were indigenous to Canaan. Integrating archaeogenetics, historical linguistics, scriptural analysis, and material culture, the research proposes that the Israelites were a genetically and phenotypically distinct population closely related to Middle to Late Bronze Age (MLBA) steppe cultures of Northern and Western Europe.

Methodology and Genetic Findings

Utilizing qpAdm admixture modeling, linkage disequilibrium analysis, and Y-DNA haplogroup tracking, the study identifies a significant influx of Steppe_MLBA-like ancestry into the Lebanese genome beginning around 1750 BCE, peaking around 960 BCE, and gradually increasing thereafter. This genetic input, particularly evident in Y-DNA haplogroups R1b and R1a, aligns temporally with the expansion of the Israelites and other Abrahamic groups into the Levant. The study argues that this influx cannot be attributed to known regional conquests by Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, or Sea Peoples, suggesting instead a direct migration of an unadmixed population bearing a composite Steppe, Western Hunter-Gatherer (WHG), and Anatolian Neolithic Farmer (ANF) profile.

Phenotypic and Cultural Corroboration

Ancient depictions and genetic reconstructions indicate that the Israelites exhibited features consistent with Steppe_MLBA populations, including fair pigmentation, blue or green eyes, and intermediate to light hair color. Additionally, the presence of lactase persistence among the Israelites supports this connection, as such traits are prevalent in Steppe-descended populations. Culturally, Israelite practices such as patriarchy, pastoralism, metalworking, and chariot use mirror those of Steppe traditions. Linguistically, Hebrew shares Indo-European etymological patterns, including motifs rare in Afro-Asiatic languages, further supporting the hypothesis of a Steppe origin.

Conclusion

This study presents a compelling case for reevaluating the origins of the ancient Israelites, suggesting that they were not indigenous to Canaan but rather descended from Northern European populations associated with Steppe_MLBA cultures. The integration of genetic, phenotypic, linguistic, and cultural evidence provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the complex ancestry of the Israelites and their impact on the genetic landscape of the Levant.

For a detailed exploration of the study, you can access the full article here: The Aryan Hypothesis: Identifying the Israelites.

In Levant Tags News, Studies

Changes in European male cranial morphology within the context of major genetic clusters and archaeological cultures. Created according to the paleogenetic studies mentioned in the text and Buchvaldek et al. (2007), with updated chronology

Tracing Cranial Evolution in Prehistoric Europe: Insights from the Upper Paleolithic to Bronze Age Migrations

May 24, 2025

A new study conducted by Pavel Grasgruber “The evolution of European cranial morphology: From the Upper Paleolithic to the Late Eneolithic steppe invasions” represents one of the most expansive craniometric analyses of European prehistoric populations to date, aiming to track morphological changes in cranial structure from the Upper Paleolithic through the Late Eneolithic, with a specific focus on the transitional phases marked by Neolithic farming dispersals and the later steppe migrations. By evaluating nearly four thousand male crania from 103 archaeologically dated European samples, this research provides key insights into the biological transformations that accompanied large-scale cultural shifts over a span of more than 20,000 years.

The methodological core of the study lies in the systematic application of traditional anthropometric techniques, measuring 22 cranial variables—11 raw cranial dimensions and 11 derived indices. The crania are grouped into six chronological phases spanning from ~25,000 BCE to ~2000 BCE. Advanced statistical procedures, such as principal component analysis (PCA), were employed to identify significant patterns in cranial morphology across time and geographic space.

The findings of the study reveal distinct shifts in cranial form that correlate closely with major cultural transitions. During the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, cranial morphology across Europe was typified by robust forms: large crania with broad faces and strong muscle attachments. These populations exhibit a high degree of morphological homogeneity over time, suggesting strong biological continuity despite environmental challenges and presumed population mobility.

Comparison of male skulls of Jamnaja-derived populations from the period 3000–2000 cal. BC. Source: Schwabedissen (1973); Schwabedissen (1978)

A marked transformation, however, occurs with the onset of the Neolithic period (~6000 BCE), initiated by the migration of Anatolian farmers into Europe. These groups introduced a more gracile cranial phenotype, characterized by narrower faces and more delicate cranial features. Notably, this shift does not suggest immediate or total population replacement; rather, Neolithic Europe becomes a mosaic of morphologically distinct populations, where early farmers coexisted and interbred with indigenous Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. This is particularly evident in areas such as the Mediterranean, Central Europe, and the Balkans.

The most significant cranial diversification emerges during the Late Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age (ca. 3000–2000 BCE), corresponding to the migration of steppe pastoralist groups, such as those associated with the Yamnaya culture. These migrations introduced new cranial morphotypes into Europe, diverging sharply from both Neolithic and earlier Upper Paleolithic populations. Two major morphological trajectories are observed: (1) the ultradolichocephalic type, typified by long-headed crania linked to the Corded Ware culture; and (2) the brachycephalic type, identified with the Bell Beaker culture and characterized by broader, shorter crania. These developments indicate complex admixture events and regionally differentiated outcomes of steppe-related demographic input.

Grasgruber’s synthesis suggests that European cranial morphology did not evolve along a linear or homogeneous path. Rather, it was repeatedly reshaped by demographic pulses of migration and cultural expansion, each leaving distinct biological signatures. While Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic continuity formed the baseline of European biological identity, this was successively modified first by Neolithic agricultural dispersals and later by Bronze Age steppe incursions.

Importantly, the study contributes to ongoing debates concerning the biological impact of prehistoric migrations, particularly in light of recent genetic studies that have corroborated massive gene flow from Anatolia and the Pontic-Caspian steppes. Grasgruber’s craniometric findings offer morphological validation of these genetic patterns, reinforcing the view that Europe's prehistoric demographic history was shaped by recurring waves of migration and integration, rather than isolation or single-event replacements.

This work further emphasizes the need for integrative frameworks that synthesize osteological, genetic, and archaeological data to reconstruct the biological history of European populations. By charting long-term morphological evolution, it underscores how deeply embedded human biology is in cultural and ecological contexts—making cranial form a valuable proxy for tracking population histories across deep time.

Conclusion

Grasgruber’s study stands as a landmark in bioarchaeological research, illustrating how cranial morphology can function as a powerful tool for tracing prehistoric human movement, interaction, and transformation. The correlation between cranial change and archaeological transitions from the Upper Paleolithic to the Bronze Age reveals the extent to which Europe's population history is marked by complexity, heterogeneity, and repeated episodes of demographic restructuring.

Tags Studies, News

Rethinking Indo-European Origins in Scandinavia: New Archaeological Study Challenges the Single Wave Steppe Migration Hypothesis

May 24, 2025

Recent discourse on the Indo-Europeanization of Europe has been dominated by the steppe hypothesis, which posits a large-scale migration of Indo-European-speaking populations from the Pontic-Caspian steppes around 3000 BCE, associated with the Yamnaya culture and subsequently the Corded Ware complex. This model has gained traction largely due to advances in archaeogenetics, offering compelling evidence of population replacement and mobility. However, Rune Iversen's archaeological analysis titled “Issues with the Steppe Hypothesis: An Archaeological Perspective—Iconography, Mythology, and Language in Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Southern Scandinavia” introduces a critical perspective on this narrative by examining the southern Scandinavian region through the lens of iconography, mythological structures, and material culture transitions.

Iversen begins by observing that Neolithic iconography in southern Scandinavia, prior to the 2nd millennium BCE, was largely aniconic, favoring abstract, geometric forms akin to those found in the megalithic art traditions of western Europe. This visual language contrasts starkly with the anthropomorphic imagery—notably the statue menhirs—that emerged in other parts of Europe from the late 4th to early 3rd millennium BCE. These standing stones, featuring stylized human forms and sometimes weaponry or costume details, are thought to convey emerging social hierarchies, elite identities, and potentially religious or mythological content.

What is striking is the absence of such iconography in contemporaneous southern Scandinavian contexts, despite the region's increasing contact with steppe-derived cultural elements such as Corded Ware pottery, burial traditions, and domestic technologies. This absence suggests that early steppe-related influences did not immediately introduce Indo-European cosmological structures or human representations into Scandinavian symbolic systems.

Iversen's core argument revolves around the timing and nature of cultural transformations. He identifies the Early Nordic Bronze Age (beginning ca. 2000 BCE) as a decisive phase in which southern Scandinavia begins to exhibit both anthropomorphic imagery and motifs that may align with Indo-European mythological themes. This shift is particularly evident in rock carvings, metalwork, and burial practices that imply personification of deities, narratives of divine twins, solar symbolism, and warrior ideologies—hallmarks of reconstructed Indo-European belief systems.

This temporal disconnect—between the arrival of steppe-related material culture (~2800 BCE) and the emergence of Indo-European mythological expression (~2000 BCE)—forms the crux of Iversen’s critique of the single-wave model of Indo-Europeanization. He contends that a more nuanced, multi-phase process must be acknowledged. Rather than a singular migratory event initiating a full suite of cultural, linguistic, and religious transformations, Iversen posits at least two significant waves of steppe innovation affecting southern Scandinavia. The first wave brought material and technological shifts without substantive changes in symbolic and cosmological systems. Only in the second phase, during the Early Bronze Age, do we see the full integration of Indo-European ideologies into the local cultural matrix.

Furthermore, Iversen's work suggests that iconographic and ideological changes are essential to understanding cultural transformation—particularly the spread of Indo-European languages and religious systems. The archaeological record, when read in conjunction with linguistic and genetic evidence, offers a more intricate narrative of how Indo-European culture expanded: not as a uniform diffusion, but as a complex process of adoption, adaptation, and resistance.

In summary, this research provides a critical archaeological counterpoint to prevailing genetic interpretations of the steppe hypothesis. By demonstrating the diachronic disparity between early steppe cultural influences and later Indo-European ideological expressions in southern Scandinavia, Iversen underscores the need for interdisciplinary approaches that account for both biological and symbolic dimensions of human migration and cultural change.

Tags Studies, News

Tracing the First Americans: New DNA Study Reveals Epic Migration from Siberia to South America

May 24, 2025

A recent study titled "From North Asia to South America: Tracing the longest human dispersal," published in Science, offers a comprehensive genetic investigation into one of the most remarkable migrations in human prehistory—the peopling of America. This research sheds new light on how early humans traveled from northeastern Asia, particularly Siberia, all the way to the southernmost parts of the American continent. The study's primary focus was to reconstruct the routes, timing, and genetic background of the populations that undertook this epic journey.

The research team used ancient DNA extracted from over 100 individuals whose remains span a vast timeline and geography—from Siberia and Beringia to various parts of the Americas. These individuals lived at different moments over the past 25,000 years, some dating back more than 10,000 years. Through high-resolution genetic sequencing and comparative analysis, the scientists were able to identify genetic lineages and trace their dispersal through time and space. They integrated this genetic data with radiocarbon dating, archaeological findings, and computational modeling to build a robust framework for understanding how these early populations migrated and interacted.

The study concluded that human migration into the Americas occurred in multiple waves, not as a single, straightforward event. The earliest wave originated from northern Asia, crossing through the Beringian land bridge during the Last Glacial Maximum. Once these populations entered the American continent, they moved southward with surprising speed, likely utilizing both coastal and inland routes. South America, despite its distance from the Bering Strait, was settled relatively quickly—within just a few thousand years after the initial entry into North America.

Importantly, the researchers found clear evidence of population structure and genetic diversity, suggesting that these migrants did not move in isolation. There were complex interactions among different groups, including admixture events and regional adaptations. The study also shows that remnants of these ancient lineages are still present in today’s Indigenous populations, especially in South America, preserving the genetic legacy of these early settlers.

This groundbreaking research demonstrates the power of ancient DNA in illuminating the hidden chapters of human history. It reframes the story of the Americas not as one of simple colonization, but as a dynamic and multifaceted process of human movement, adaptation, and survival across some of the most challenging terrains on Earth. By mapping the genetic echoes of these long journeys, the study contributes significantly to our understanding of how the Americas came to be populated and how early humans spread across the globe.

Tags Studies, News

Greeks to Produce Film on the Battle of Marathon Entirely in Ancient Greek

May 11, 2025

Information by George Syros


In a groundbreaking cinematic endeavor, Greek director Yiannis Stravolaimos is set to bring the historic Battle of Marathon to life in a film titled Nenikikamen ("We Have Won"), distinguished by its exclusive use of Ancient Greek and Old Persian languages. This ambitious project aims to authentically recreate the linguistic and cultural atmosphere of 490 BCE, offering audiences a unique immersion into classical antiquity.

A Cinematic First in Ancient Languages

Nenikikamen stands out as the first feature film to be performed entirely in the classical dialects of Ancient Greek and Old Persian. The script, meticulously translated into these ancient tongues, seeks to provide an unparalleled historical authenticity. This linguistic choice not only honors the original context of the events depicted but also serves as a bold artistic statement in contemporary cinema.

Historical Fidelity and Mythological Elements

Drawing from primary sources such as Herodotus, Plutarch, and Pausanias, the film delves deep into the events surrounding the Battle of Marathon. It portrays key historical figures, including Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, and Pheidippides, as well as Persian leaders Darius, Artaphernes, and Datis. In addition to the historical narrative, Nenikikamen incorporates mythological aspects, depicting the involvement of deities like Athena and Pan and legendary heroes such as Echetlus, reflecting the ancient Greeks' belief in divine influence over human affairs.

International Cast and Production

The film boasts a diverse cast of Greek and international actors. To ensure accurate pronunciation and delivery of the ancient languages, foreign actors will be dubbed by trained linguists specialising in Ancient Greek and Old Persian. Notable Greek actors involved in the project include Kostis Savvidakis, Konstantinos Konstantopoulos, Anthimos Ananiadis, and Teo Theodoridis.

Cultural Diplomacy Through Cinema

Director Yiannis Stravolaimos envisions Nenikikamen as more than a historical epic; he sees it as a form of cultural diplomacy. By showcasing Greece's rich heritage and linguistic history, the film aims to foster a deeper appreciation for ancient civilisations and their enduring impact on the modern world. Stravolaimos believes that cinema, as a powerful medium, can bridge cultural gaps and bring historical narratives to a global audience in an engaging and educational manner.

Nenikikamen is currently in production, with further details on its release anticipated in the coming months. The film promises to be a significant contribution to both historical cinema and the preservation of ancient languages.

The Cry of Victory: The Story Behind Nenikikamen

The film’s title, Nenikikamen, is drawn from one of the most iconic moments in ancient Greek history—a cry of triumph that has echoed through the centuries. According to ancient sources, after the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE, a messenger (often identified as Pheidippides) was dispatched to run the roughly 42 kilometres (26 miles) from the battlefield to Athens to announce the outcome. Upon arriving in the city, exhausted and near death, he is said to have uttered a single word: “Nenikikamen!”—“We have won!”—before collapsing and dying.

This moment has since become emblematic of sacrifice, endurance, and patriotic devotion. Whether the tale of Pheidippides is fully historical or partially mythologised, it captured the imagination of later generations, eventually inspiring the modern marathon race introduced during the first modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896.

In the film, this dramatic episode serves as a climactic and emotional turning point. Director Yiannis Stravolaimos uses the phrase not only to mark the Athenian victory over the Persian invaders but also as a universal symbol of human determination and the struggle for freedom. The utterance of Nenikikamen in the original Attic dialect is carefully reconstructed to deliver both historical gravitas and cinematic intensity.

Through this single word, the film connects ancient heroism with contemporary values, reminding viewers that history is not merely a collection of events but a source of enduring inspiration.

Tags News

Ritual Closure of Monuments and Symbolic Respect for Space: The Cases of Lerna and Sissi

April 27, 2025

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


Deconstructing Theories of External Imposition

The recent study of the cemetery at Sissi in Crete reveals a unique ritual practice of the Minoans, interpreted as the symbolic "death" or closure of their tombs. Instead of gradually abandoning the communal graves, the inhabitants of Sissi, around 1700 BCE, undertook a deliberate and ritualized process marking the end of an era.

Specifically, the last dead were buried in small pits or ceramic vessels. Afterwards, they carefully dismantled the tomb walls, crushed some bones to blend with the soil, and celebrated with a large communal feast. The findings include thousands of pottery fragments, remains of cups, and kitchenware, all dated to the same period. These elements suggest a collective ceremony that signaled the final use of the burial grounds.

Figure 3. The archaeological site of Sissi, seen from the north. The white dotted line indicates the limits of the cemetery (Zones 1 & 9) (© Belgian School at Athens, N. Kress).

Finally, participants covered everything with a layer of soil and stones, sealing the site forever. Remarkably, centuries later, when burials resumed in the area, this specific location remained untouched, indicating a lasting respect for this ritual closure. This practice reflects a profound cultural transition and a conscious effort by the Minoans to close a chapter of their history with reverence and ritual significance. The discovery offers valuable insights into the social and religious perceptions of the time and enriches our understanding of Minoan civilization.

The practice of ritually "closing" significant spaces through careful burial and continued respect for tomb or building grounds is also observed in the prehistoric Aegean world. The case of the House of the Tiles at Lerna and the recent discoveries at Sissi in Crete demonstrate the same symbolic logic: the need for a conscious transition and an honorable disengagement from a past charged with social and sacred meaning.

Figure 1. Distribution of Prepalatial and Protopalatial tombs, with the location of the main cemeteries mentioned in the text (S. Déderix).

At Lerna, after the destruction of the House of the Tiles around the end of Early Helladic II (ca. 2400–2200 BCE), the inhabitants carefully emptied the building, set it on fire, and then erected a mound (tumulus) of 19 meters in diameter over its remains. This tumulus was demarcated with a stone ring, and for a significant period during the Early Helladic III phase, no new structures were built atop it—testifying to a profound respect for the space and the historical memory it embodied. A similar ritual strategy, with many parallels, is evident at Sissi.

This analogy suggests that both in mainland Greece and Minoan Crete, the societies of the Late Early Bronze Age did not experience change through violent external impositions but through internal processes of renewal, deeply rooted in a ritual understanding of time, memory, and space. This organized and respectful treatment of earlier monumental architecture stands in contrast to the traditional image of violent invasions or external elite dominance, once assumed by older theories regarding the arrival of the "Proto-Greeks" (in the case of mainland Greece).

Instead, it indicates that the local communities themselves chose to manage the end of an earlier social and political phase through conscious, ritualized closure. Building and maintaining the tumulus can be seen as a way for the community to remember their past and show their pride, without any signs of new power being forced upon them from outside.

Caskey, J.L., Blackburn, E.T., Lerna in the Argolid. A Short Guide, American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Athens, 1977. © American School of Classical Studies at Athens

Furthermore, the collapse of the "Corridor House" system was not immediately followed by the rise of new, stronger elite centers, but rather by a phase of social simplification and fragmentation, as indicated by the emergence of apsidal buildings and changes in burial practices. This gradual and endogenous transformation better aligns with scenarios of internal social evolution rather than models of abrupt external domination.

Thus, the cultural changes observed at the end of the third millennium BCE appear to be more closely tied to transformations in local economic, social, and ritual practices rather than to the arrival of foreign populations or imposed systems. The Early Helladic III culture, although distinct from its predecessor, nonetheless shows strong elements of continuity, reshaping and integrating the past through internal processes.

The situations in Lerna and Sissi help break down ideas about quick takeovers or outside influences and improve our understanding of prehistoric communities as active participants in deliberate local cultural changes, where managing space and memory was very important.

In Aegean Prehistory Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis, News, Studies

New genetic data reveal a strong Greek genetic footprint in Carthage

April 27, 2025

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


How and when did the first populations move into North Africa? What is the significance of the detected "Aegean/Greek DNA"? How did the Carthaginians maintain their cultural dominance? (9-minute read)

Carthage was founded in the late 9th century BCE (traditionally 814 BCE) as a colony of Tyre, at a time when Tyre was a thriving commercial center. Therefore, the first inhabitants were Phoenician settlers — Semitic populations from the Levantine coasts, descendants of the ancient Canaanites. However, from the very foundation of the city, it is likely that local Berber (Libyan) populations of North Africa coexisted in the area, with whom the Phoenician settlers interacted and possibly intermarried. The very name of the city (Qart-Ḥadašt, meaning "New City") denotes a new settlement in foreign territory, but its development was closely tied to the local environment. Archaeological and historical evidence suggests that Carthage quickly evolved from a small trading post into a prosperous city-state with its own "Carthaginian" civilization. This civilization was clearly Phoenician (Semitic language, religion, customs), but the ancestry of the city's population was not purely Phoenician.

A recent paleogenetic study shed the first light on the biological composition of the early Carthaginians. The so-called "Young Man of Byrsa"—a man from the late 6th century BCE discovered in a burial chamber at Byrsa Hill in Carthage—revealed through ancient DNA analysis a maternal lineage (mitochondrial haplogroup U5b2c1) that is rare and European, originating from prehistoric populations in the northern Mediterranean. Specifically, this mtDNA links the individual's ancestry to regions such as the Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean islands, or the northern Mediterranean coasts. The discovery constitutes the first direct evidence suggesting that even the early inhabitants of Carthage could have mixed ancestry, including European elements. In other words, the presence of such an ancient European genetic marker (U5b2c1) in North Africa indicates that Phoenician settlers had incorporated individuals from earlier Mediterranean populations (e.g., from Sicily, Sardinia, or Iberia) into their communities. This initial genetic diversity aligns with the historical image of a port city open to various ethnic groups. Although Carthage may have been founded by a few dozen or hundreds of Phoenician settlers, within a few generations its population expanded through admixture with local and other northern Mediterranean peoples. Truthfully, we have long understood that the Phoenicians' cultural dominance in Carthage did not imply absolute demographic dominance. Many ancient Greek colonies also observed the same phenomenon.

This reality became even clearer in a recent large-scale study of 103 ancient genomes from Carthage itself and other Phoenician/Carthaginian sites. Researchers identified a recognizable "Carthaginian" genetic profile, but it bore minimal relation to the populations of ancient Phoenicia. Instead, it was primarily composed of European (Greek/Aegean and Sicilian) and North African genotypes.

The First Neolithic Expansions—Prehistoric Population Flows into North Africa

To understand how European genetic elements appeared in North Africa long before Carthage's founding, we must examine population movements during the Neolithic period. The transition from hunter-gatherer economies to farming and animal husbandry occurred in North Africa approximately 7,500 years ago. Two main theories exist: either that local Mesolithic populations gradually adopted Neolithic innovations or that incoming farmers migrated into the area, bringing their way of life. Ancient DNA now clarifies this process. Furthermore, recent genome studies of prehistoric skeletons in the Maghreb revealed clear ancestry shifts during the Neolithic transition: the earliest Neolithic burials in Northwest Africa primarily show European Neolithic ancestry. The evidence implies that the initial farmers who emerged in Morocco and Algeria were predominantly descended from Neolithic populations from southern Europe. Researchers conclude that migrant European farmers introduced agriculture to Northwest Africa, which then rapidly disseminated among local groups.

This pattern fits into the broader wave of Neolithic farmer expansions from the Near East into Greece and Europe. It is well known that early farmers began in Anatolia and the Levant, spreading gradually westward via coastal Mediterranean routes to the Balkans, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia, and Iberia. Archaeologically, the spread of Impressa/Cardial pottery along coastal zones reflects the so-called "Mediterranean route" of Neolithic expansion. Notably, the appearance of agriculture in northeast Africa (e.g., the eastern Rif in Morocco) is nearly synchronous with its emergence in southern Spain, around 5500 BCE, suggesting maritime transfer of people and ideas. Thus, the wider agricultural dissemination led to a significant expansion of Neolithic populations from Europe into North Africa.

Note that a single migratory stream did not limit the genetic history of North Africa during the Neolithic. In addition to the European Neolithic influx, later contributions from the Near East are detectable. During the Middle Neolithic period, around 5000 BCE, the Maghreb genetic profile shows the introduction of a Levantine element, coinciding with the arrival of pastoralism (cattle, sheep, goats) in the region. This finding suggests that groups of herders possibly migrated westward from the eastern Mediterranean or the Nile Valley, bringing new genetic influences. Ultimately, by the end of the Neolithic, populations of the Maghreb exhibited a mixed genetic profile, combining local Paleolithic/Mesolithic heritage, European Neolithic farmer ancestry, and Near Eastern admixture. This prolonged prehistoric admixture explains why certain ancient European haplogroups (such as U5) or "Sardinian-type" genetic elements later appear among North African populations.

Regarding specifically Mycenaean, Sicilian, or Sardinian populations and their connection to North Africa, the data are fragmentary but indicative. There is no documented direct mass migration of Mycenaeans into North Africa during the Bronze Age. However, the presence of Mycenaean artifacts in Egypt and possible contacts with Libya suggest some level of interaction. After the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization (~1200 BCE), groups from the Aegean participated in the so-called "Sea Peoples," who reached as far as Egypt. Among them were the Sherden (possibly from Sardinia) and the Shekelesh (perhaps from Sicily). Although these groups clashed with Egypt, some may have settled in Libya or Canaan. These late-Chalcolithic or early Iron Age movements may have had a limited impact on western North Africa, though a minor genetic contribution from Aegean/European Bronze Age populations cannot be ruled out.

Moreover, the genetic landscape of the Carthaginians later exhibits strong affinities with ancient Greek populations, possibly linked to these early European movements or to Greek colonies established in Africa.

As for Sicily and Sardinia, these two major Mediterranean islands acted as bridges for population movements. Especially Sicily, due to its proximity to the Tunisian coast, served as a natural channel: early Neolithic settlers could have crossed in either direction between Tunisia and Sicily. During the 3rd millennium BCE (the Bronze Age), Sicily received influences from the Aegean world (e.g., Mycenaean finds) and later from Phoenician and Greek settlers. Sardinia, on the other hand, remained relatively genetically isolated for millennia (modern Sardinians preserve a high proportion of ancient Neolithic ancestry). Nonetheless, the Sherden people's history suggests some early contact with the eastern Mediterranean. In historic times, Carthaginian expansion led to the establishment of Phoenician colonies in Sardinia (e.g., Tharros), prompting some local population movements. Overall, we can say that the genetic impact of Sicilian and Sardinian populations on North Africa is detectable indirectly: either through early Neolithic dissemination (European farmers reaching the Maghreb) or through later historical interactions (e.g., integration of Sicilians into the Carthaginian network).

Phoenician Expansion and Genetic Interactions in the Western Mediterranean

During the Iron Age (1st millennium BCE), the Phoenicians expanded their maritime trading network, establishing numerous outposts and colonies throughout the western Mediterranean. By the 11th–10th century BCE, Phoenician settlements appeared in Spain (e.g., Cádiz), the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Malta, Sardinia, and beyond. The genetic contribution of these Semitic settlers to local populations had long been an open question. Traditionally, it was believed that the "Punic" populations (i.e., the western Phoenician colonies such as Carthage) would exhibit a strong Phoenician (Levantine) genetic signature. However, large-scale ancient DNA analyses have overturned this assumption. Researchers discovered that populations in the western Mediterranean received limited direct genetic input from Phoenician mother cities (Tyre, Sidon, etc.).

Despite their intense cultural, economic, and linguistic influence, the original Phoenician cities contributed minimal direct DNA to the Punic populations of the central and western Mediterranean. The spread of Phoenician culture thus occurred not through mass migration but primarily through the diffusion of cultural models and the integration of local communities.

Specifically, every Phoenician-Carthaginian site studied shows remarkable heterogeneity regarding its inhabitants' origins. Researchers detected an "extremely heterogeneous" genetic profile in ancient skeletons from these sites. In almost all Punic communities — from Carthage itself to colonies in Iberia, Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa — the majority of individuals exhibited ancestries similar to those of ancient Sicilian and Aegean populations (southern Europe), while a significant portion had North African ancestry. In contrast, direct Near Eastern/Semitic genetic input was minimal. This practically means that in Phoenician colonies, people of diverse backgrounds lived together: individuals of local North African descent alongside others of predominantly European (Sicilian/Greek) origin. The different Punic communities were connected via maritime "kinship networks." For instance, a pair of distant relatives (approximately second cousins) were found: one buried in a Phoenician city in North Africa, the other in a Phoenician settlement in Sicily. Such findings illustrate the cosmopolitan character of the Carthaginian network, where movement and intermarriage across different regions were common.

This theory also explains how Phoenician settlers, initially a demographic minority, eventually genetically assimilated local populations rather than replacing them. As geneticist Pierre Zalloua aptly put it, "The Phoenicians were a civilization of integration and assimilation — they settled wherever they traveled." Despite their broad and diverse biological ancestry, these mixed populations transmitted their cultural identity (language, religion, and technical knowledge).

The case of Carthage shows that a group can be very influential in trade and culture even if they are not the largest population, similar to some theories about how Indo-European languages spread, but the history, society, and population of northern Africa at that time were quite different.

In summary, the Carthaginian rulers spoke the Phoenician language and worshipped Phoenician gods, but their subjects and allies came from various Mediterranean nations. In the end, the genetic background of the Carthaginians in the western Mediterranean is spread out and varied, showing a blend of European and African genes with some small Semitic influences, instead of a clear "Phoenician" genetic identity. This conclusion aligns perfectly with historical accounts of the multiethnic societies of the western Mediterranean and highlights how population movements are inextricably linked to cultural interactions.

In Levant, Aegean Prehistory Tags Studies, News, Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

New Hittite Tablet Shows Striking Correspondences with the Narrative of Homer's Iliad

April 1, 2025

A Trojan Echo in Clay: Hittite Tablet Discovery Reinforces Homeric Traditions

A remarkable new discovery has emerged from the archives of Hittite texts, shaking the very foundations of how we perceive the Trojan War and its historicity. Unearthed and recently published under the auspices of Oxford’s Michele Bianconi, this newly deciphered tablet—Keilfischurkunden aus Boghazköi 24.1—offers what could be one of the most tantalizing written connections between Bronze Age Anatolia and the epic tradition that culminated in Homer’s Iliad.

While previous Hittite records have referenced familiar names—Wiluša for Ilion/Troy, Ahhiyawa for the Achaeans, and figures such as Alaksandu and Attaršiya (possibly Atreus or an early Achaean leader)—this tablet goes further. It not only reinforces the geopolitical dynamics of the Late Bronze Age but also provides an unprecedented literary fragment that suggests a native Luwian poetic tradition dealing with the fall of Troy existed centuries before Homer.

Summary of the Text and Context

The tablet recounts a royal correspondence between a Hittite monarch and an individual named Pariyamuwa, who is likely a regional king or vassal, possibly of Taruiša (Troy). Early lines reference a known figure from Hittite records—Attaršiya of Ahhiyawa—and his sons attacking Taruiša. This narrative is consistent with the CTH 147 ("The Indictment of Madduwatta"), where Attaršiya was already depicted as a formidable Achaean figure operating aggressively in western Anatolia.

What is striking here is not merely the continuity of these geopolitical motifs but the inclusion of a Luwian poetic fragment towards the end of the tablet, apparently describing the fall of Wiluša (Troy). This rhythmical line—“they sing in Luwian (of) the destruction of steep (?) Wiluša: ‘The wrath, o god(dess), si[ng…’”—bears a chilling resemblance to the famous opening of Homer’s Iliad: “Sing, goddess, the wrath of Achilles…”

Analysis: Bridging Hittite History and Homeric Epic

Until now, scholars of Aegean prehistory and oral tradition were left largely to conjecture when linking the Hittite archives with Homer’s poetry. We had political evidence for the existence of a city named Wiluša (Troy), and we understood that Ahhiyawa represented a western power with a Greek-speaking elite. What remained elusive was a literary—or at least semi-literary—bridge.

This tablet offers, for the first time, a suggestion of a poetic corpus in the Luwian language, apparently chronicling the fall of Troy. While fragmentary, the passage demonstrates a rhythm likely intended for oral performance. The dactylic or spondaic structure—coincidentally echoing Homer’s hexameter—could hint at a broader epic tradition within Anatolian courts, possibly older than the 8th-century BCE composition of the Iliad.

The Luwian poetic line referencing divine wrath and destruction further suggests thematic and formal parallels with Greek epic tradition. Given that Troy was an Anatolian city and that the region hosted a bilingual (or even multilingual) population—including Hittites, Luwians, and other Indo-European groups—the existence of a local narrative tradition about Troy's fall is both plausible and now tentatively evidenced.

The Question of Prehistoric Texts and the Trojan War

This discovery reignites a central scholarly debate: Did Bronze Age Anatolia possess its own narrative tradition about Troy's fall, separate from or ancestral to Homeric poetry?

So far, no long-form poetic texts concerning the Trojan War have been found from the Late Bronze Age. While the Mycenaeans left Linear B tablets, these were purely administrative and offered no mythological content. The Hittites, on the other hand, maintained an archive of myths, treaties, and diplomatic correspondence, yet—until now—no definitive poetic narrative about Wiluša's destruction had been identified.

This new tablet changes the game. If this Luwian line is truly part of a broader epic or lament, it suggests that the oral tradition of Troy’s fall was already present in second-millennium Anatolia, possibly passed down among court singers, bards, or scribes long before the Homeric bards of Ionia ever took up the lyre.

Such a tradition could have traveled westward or been inherited by Greek-speaking populations of the coast, eventually morphing into the Iliad. Alternatively, the Iliad may be a Greek reworking of a shared Indo-European mythic repertoire, adapted to the political realities and cultural memories of Iron Age Greece.

Conclusion: Clay Voices and Echoes of Ilion

This Hittite tablet, in its modest clay form, may represent one of the most important finds in the quest for the historical and literary origins of the Trojan War narrative. While the evidence is fragmentary and requires cautious interpretation, it provides an unparalleled glimpse into how the Anatolians themselves—particularly the Luwians—remembered or imagined the fall of Troy.

Was Homer merely echoing songs sung in Wiluša, in a language now mostly forgotten? Were the first bards of Troy Luwian-speaking poets whose verses have only now begun to resurface?

Only time—and more tablets—will tell. But for now, this small fragment from Boğazköy reverberates with a long-lost voice, reminding us that history and myth were always entangled, and that in the clay of forgotten archives, epic still sleeps.

In Anatolia, Aegean Prehistory Tags News, The Archaeologist Editorial Group

American Primeval: The New Netflix Series and the Harsh Reality of the Wild West

March 11, 2025

Netflix’s upcoming series American Primeval promises to bring viewers face-to-face with the raw, violent, and untamed reality of the American frontier. The Wild West has long been romanticized in cinema and literature, but the historical reality is far more brutal and complex than the myths that have endured. To fully appreciate the themes and setting of American Primeval, one must delve into the history of the United States following its independence, the internal conflicts that shaped the nation, and the nature of the Wild West itself, both as a historical period and as a cultural phenomenon.

The United States formally declared its independence on July 4, 1776, with the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. However, independence was not secured until the conclusion of the Revolutionary War in 1783 with the Treaty of Paris. The early years of the fledgling republic were fraught with political instability, economic challenges, and territorial disputes. The newly formed government had to navigate the balance between state and federal authority, while also expanding westward into lands occupied by Indigenous peoples. The Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which doubled the size of the country, marked a turning point in America’s expansionist ambitions, setting the stage for the relentless push westward that defined the 19th century.

The Wild West refers to the period of westward expansion in the United States during the 19th century, roughly spanning from the early 1800s to the early 1900s. It was a time of unregulated lawlessness, violent frontier justice, and continuous clashes between settlers, outlaws, and Indigenous tribes. The expansion was fueled by the ideology of Manifest Destiny—the belief that Americans were destined to spread across the continent. However, this expansion came at a great cost, particularly to Native American tribes, who were displaced, subjugated, and often exterminated in the process.

One of the most defining aspects of the Wild West was the near-absence of a strong centralized government. Many frontier towns were ruled by their own makeshift legal systems, enforced by local sheriffs or vigilante groups. Lawmen such as Wyatt Earp and Pat Garrett became legends, as did outlaws like Jesse James and Billy the Kid. The frontier was a place where justice was often delivered at the end of a gun barrel, and disputes were frequently settled through violence. The towns that sprung up around gold rush sites and cattle trade routes became notorious for their saloons, gambling dens, and duels in the dusty streets.

The relationship between settlers and Native American tribes was another key aspect of the frontier experience. The Indian Removal Act of 1830, signed by President Andrew Jackson, forced Indigenous tribes off their ancestral lands, leading to events like the Trail of Tears, during which thousands of Native Americans died during forced relocations. As settlers pushed westward, conflicts with Indigenous peoples intensified. The Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876, where the Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne warriors defeated General Custer’s forces, and the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, where hundreds of Lakota men, women, and children were slaughtered by the U.S. Army, were among the most infamous confrontations. The violent clashes between Native American resistance and the U.S. military marked the brutal reality of America’s expansionist policies.

Another defining characteristic of the Wild West was the economic boom driven by cattle ranching, mining, and railroad construction. The completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 connected the East and West coasts, accelerating migration and trade. Ranchers and cowboys played a significant role in shaping the economy, driving cattle from Texas to markets further north. However, this era also saw the rise of corporate control over the frontier, with railroad companies and land barons amassing vast fortunes while workers and small-time ranchers struggled to survive. The Gold Rush of 1849, which drew thousands to California in search of fortune, contributed to the chaotic and often violent nature of frontier towns.

Internally, the United States faced significant civil strife. The most devastating conflict was the American Civil War (1861-1865), fought between the Northern Union and the Southern Confederacy over the issues of slavery, states’ rights, and economic power. The war resulted in the abolition of slavery, but the Reconstruction period that followed was fraught with racial tension, political corruption, and continued violence. Even after the Civil War, social and political divisions remained, manifesting in later conflicts such as the labor strikes of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, racial segregation laws, and the long-lasting struggle for civil rights.

The mythology of the Wild West has been perpetuated through popular culture, particularly in cinema. Western films have depicted the era through a mix of reality and myth, often focusing on the lone gunslinger archetype, the struggle between civilization and savagery, and the concept of frontier justice. Classic films such as The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966) and Unforgiven (1992) portray the moral ambiguity of the era, while more recent productions like Deadwood (2004-2006) and 1883 (2021) strive for a grittier, more historically accurate representation. American Primeval is expected to follow this trend, offering a brutal and unfiltered look at the frontier’s harsh realities.

Netflix’s new series aims to strip away the romanticized illusions of the Old West and present a world where survival was brutal and often depended on one’s ability to wield power, whether through force, cunning, or sheer luck. The Wild West was a place of lawlessness, but also of opportunity—a land where legends were made and lives were lost in equal measure. By delving into the historical realities of the period, American Primeval has the potential to redefine how modern audiences perceive the frontier experience. The question remains: will the series succeed in portraying the true essence of the Wild West, or will it, like many before it, fall into the trap of myth-making?

In Americas Tags News, The Archaeologist Editorial Group

Archaeologists Find Tomb Filled With Ancient Beads eakphoto - Getty Images

Archaeologists Discover Ancient Tomb with the Largest Collection of Beads

February 23, 2025

Researchers have discovered over 270,000 beads in a tomb in Spain, marking the largest recorded collection of its kind.

The beads were made from shells, stones, and animal bones, and their production likely took months to complete due to the sheer quantity.

Experts believe that beaded garments may have been an indicator of social status.

Beads were not only used for bracelets but also for trade, decoration, historical record-keeping, and more. A new study published in the journal Science Advances suggests that researchers may have found the largest collection of beads ever recorded. They discovered a staggering 270,769 beads at the burial site Tholos de Montelirio, part of the Valencina archaeological site in southwestern Spain.

Most of the beads were found in a large chamber, adorning the skeletons of primarily female individuals, estimated to have been between 18 and 34 years old at the time of their deaths. Researchers also found an additional 2,000 beads scattered along a corridor leading to another chamber, and 90 beads (alongside a dagger) in the upper level of a second chamber.

The discovery of the nearly 5,000-year-old tomb, named the "Ivory Lady's Tomb", was originally made between 2010 and 2011. Since then, experts have spent the last five years meticulously studying the extensive collection. Even the cleaning and preparation of the beads for study proved to be a labor-intensive process—requiring a team of seven people and 651 hours to fully clean the delicate disc-shaped beads of all dirt and debris.

In their studies, researchers concluded that the beads were made from three different materials: marine shells, animal bones, and stone. Beads made from shells (mainly scallops) were the most abundant in the collection. Regarding the stone beads, the diversity of specimens suggests they were collected opportunistically rather than intentionally sought out. However, regardless of the material, the manufacturing process was highly intricate.

A Labor-Intensive Craft

A significant amount of labor went into creating these beads.

According to the study:

"A team of 10 individuals working 8 hours a day would have needed 206 days (almost 7 months) to produce the entire collection, using slightly less than a metric ton of marine shells."

The researchers concluded that the labor investment in crafting beaded garments was extraordinarily high.

Another researcher from the study, Marta Díaz-Guardamino, compared the effort needed to create the beaded garments to modern haute couture fashion.

"I think the efforts required to produce these beaded tunics far exceed those needed to create a red carpet haute couture outfit today," she told CNN. "It would have taken many more hours and people investing in bead production. In fact, this would have been an operation on a completely different scale, with no direct parallels in the modern world."

Beyond the scattered beads, scientists observed that the beaded objects were arranged in three main styles: tunics, skirts, and undefined shapes. The study suggests that the way each woman was dressed for burial may have indicated her status.

For example, the researchers identified one individual, UE343—a woman estimated to have been 24 to 32 years old at the time of her death—as "a very special person," since she was buried wearing a beaded tunic and placed in a prominent position within the tomb.

"These women likely held religious and possibly political leadership roles in their time," researcher Samuel Ramírez-Cruzado told LiveScience. "They managed a renowned sanctuary around which significant gatherings of great social importance took place."

Was Valencina a Matriarchal Society?

Looking ahead, Leonardo García Sanjuán, the study’s lead researcher, expressed his desire to investigate whether Valencina society, which produced these exquisite beads, was matriarchal.

"Matriarchy has been a highly controversial concept in history and anthropology," García Sanjuán told CNN. "But I’m now quite eager to confront it head-on because I don’t think it’s a coincidence that we repeatedly see cases from this era—between 2900 and 2600 BCE—of these great, very, very high-status, powerful women."

Tags News

Christopher Nolan’s The Odyssey: What Do We Know So Far About the New Cinematic Epic

February 23, 2025

Following his Oscar-winning triumph Oppenheimer, Christopher Nolan is set to embark on an entirely different journey—one that spans the mythical seas of Ancient Greece. The visionary director will bring Homer’s Odyssey to life in a grand adaptation of the legendary epic poem. This marks Nolan’s first foray into the sword-and-sandals genre and his most fantastical project to date. With pre-production well underway, the anticipation for The Odyssey continues to grow. Here’s everything we know about this ambitious cinematic undertaking.

A Star-Studded Cast

Leading the charge is Tom Holland, who has confirmed his involvement in the project, though details regarding his role remain undisclosed. Speculation suggests he could be portraying the cunning hero Odysseus or perhaps his son, Telemachus, through whose eyes the adventure might unfold. Joining him is an all-star cast that includes Zendaya, Matt Damon, Robert Pattinson, Anne Hathaway, Charlize Theron, Lupita Nyong’o, and Jon Bernthal, among others. With such a powerhouse ensemble, Nolan’s adaptation is already shaping up to be a spectacle of both talent and storytelling.

A ‘Mythic Action Epic’

Universal has described The Odyssey as a “mythic action epic,” which hints at a blend of historical authenticity and high fantasy elements. While Nolan has previously been known for grounding his narratives in realism, the source material necessitates a dive into the supernatural. The Odyssey is teeming with larger-than-life creatures, divine interventions, and perilous challenges—from the one-eyed Cyclops Polyphemus to the enchanting Sirens and the deadly six-headed Scylla. Fans are eager to see how Nolan will balance his signature realism with the mythological grandeur of the tale.

A Legacy of Epic Proportions

Homer’s Odyssey stands as one of the cornerstones of Western literature, a foundational work that has inspired countless retellings across various artistic mediums. Written around the 8th century BCE, the epic poem follows the trials of Odysseus as he struggles to return home to Ithaca after the Trojan War. The narrative is one of resilience, cunning, and human perseverance, themes that continue to resonate throughout history.

The impact of Homeric epics on Western civilization is immeasurable. The Iliad and Odyssey shaped the cultural and intellectual traditions of Ancient Greece, influencing works of philosophy, drama, and political thought. These stories served as moral and educational tools, emphasizing virtues such as honor, loyalty, and intelligence. The echoes of Homer’s storytelling can be seen in later literary masterpieces, from Virgil’s Aeneid to James Joyce’s Ulysses, and in modern cinema, which frequently borrows themes and archetypes established in these ancient texts.

Scientific and Historical Research on the Odyssey

Despite its mythological elements, the Odyssey has been the subject of significant scholarly research, with historians, archaeologists, and literary experts attempting to uncover the historical truths behind Homer’s epic. Some researchers argue that Odysseus’ journey may be based on actual voyages undertaken by ancient Greek mariners, incorporating real geographical locations and historical events.

Archaeological findings in the Ionian Islands and Troy suggest that elements of Homer’s narratives may be rooted in reality. Additionally, linguistic and textual analysis has provided insights into the oral tradition that preserved the Odyssey for centuries before it was finally written down. Theories abound about the identity of Homer himself—whether he was a single poet or a composite figure representing multiple generations of storytellers.

View fullsize GkAD8wvbYAAww-9 (1).jpeg
View fullsize GkaaO4MXkAEWcG_ (1).jpeg

A Cinematic Experience of Mythological Proportions

As with all Nolan films, audiences can expect an IMAX spectacle. The film is set to employ groundbreaking new IMAX technology, further elevating the immersive experience. The Odyssey will be filmed across multiple global locations, including Morocco, the UK, and the Sicilian island of Favignana—believed to be one of Odysseus’ landing points. This dedication to authenticity ensures that Nolan’s take on Homer’s epic will be a visually breathtaking journey.

A Modern Interpretation of an Ancient Masterpiece

With a release date set for July 17, 2026, The Odyssey promises to bring one of history’s greatest adventures to a modern audience. Christopher Nolan’s adaptation will not only introduce new generations to the legendary tale but also reaffirm the lasting influence of Greek mythology on storytelling. As one of the most anticipated films of the decade, The Odyssey is set to be a cinematic odyssey of its own—one that will transport audiences to the mythical world of gods, monsters, and timeless heroism.

Tags News, The Archaeologist Editorial Group

Nosferatu and the Resurrection of a Dead Language: Dacian in Robert Eggers’ Vampire Epic

January 12, 2025

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


The mysterious and extinct Dacian language, lost by the 4th-6th century AD, has been "artificially resurrected" through the cinematic vampire Count Orlok: The Paleo-Balkan linguistic heritage in Robert Eggers' Nosferatu.

In the realm of cinematic artistry, few directors rival Robert Eggers when it comes to meticulous historical accuracy and atmospheric depth. His 2024 remake of Nosferatu, a reimagining of the 1922 German Expressionist classic, exemplifies this ethos. Eggers not only revived Count Orlok, the grotesque and enigmatic vampire, but also resurrected a dead language for his undead protagonist, Dacian.

This linguistic choice, while subtle, underpins the eerie authenticity of the film. Dacian, an ancient Indo-European language once spoken by the inhabitants of the Carpathian region—modern-day Romania—adds layers of depth and historical nuance to the character of Orlok. Played masterfully by Bill Skarsgård, Orlok’s guttural incantations in this long-extinct tongue serve as a chilling reminder of his preternatural age and his rootedness in the haunted lands of the Carpathians.

The Linguistic Choice: Why Dacian?

While many viewers might assume that Count Orlok, situated in the Romanian Carpathians, would speak Romanian, Eggers opted for Dacian to reflect Orlok's ancient lineage. Romanian, while rooted in the region, is a Romance language that evolved after the Roman Empire's conquest of Dacia in the 2nd century AD. Dacian, however, predates this, tracing its origins to the indigenous peoples of the area before Romanization. The Dacian language vanished around 500 AD, leaving only faint traces in place names, plant names, and substratum influences on modern Romanian.

Eggers explained his choice in an interview:
"Orlok is an ancient noble, predating even the foundations of the Romanian Empire. He needed a voice that felt as timeless and forgotten as his own existence. Dacian was perfect—it’s a spectral presence, much like Orlok himself."

For a director renowned for his fastidious attention to historical and cultural detail, this decision was far from arbitrary. Eggers collaborated with linguists and historians to reconstruct portions of the language, relying on comparative linguistics and what little documentation exists of Dacian. While the language itself remains largely mysterious, with only fragments preserved in Greek and Latin texts, these elements were sufficient to craft a haunting linguistic tapestry.

The Historical Context of Dacian

The Dacians were a Thracian tribe that inhabited present-day Romania, as well as parts of modern Bulgaria, Serbia, and Hungary. According to linguists, the Dacian language is believed to have originated from Paleo-Balkan Thracian and likely shared similarities with Illyrian, languages classified as residual languages of the Indo-European family. These languages are characterized by limited written records, making their precise interpretation and placement within the Indo-European genealogical tree particularly challenging. While these languages are thought to belong to the Indo-European family, the details of their grammatical structure remain largely unknown, as documentation is mostly confined to short inscriptions, place names, and personal names preserved by ancient authors and lexicographers. The phonological structure of Dacian is hypothetical, reconstructed through place names, river names, and plant names recorded in ancient sources such as those of Dioscorides and Pseudo-Apuleius.

Despite its extinction, Dacian left traces in the Romanian language, primarily as linguistic substrata. Words such as brânză ("cheese") and mal ("riverbank") are believed to have Dacian origins. These linguistic remnants serve as echoes of a culture that once flourished in the shadow of the Carpathian Mountains.

Dacia's map from a medieval book made after Ptolemy's Geographia (c. 140 AD)

The Cinematic Execution: Dacian in Nosferatu

Bringing Dacian to life in Nosferatu was no small feat. Eggers enlisted Romanian screenwriter Florin Lăzărescu and consulted with linguists specializing in extinct Balkan languages. Bill Skarsgård, renowned for his transformative performances, trained rigorously to deliver his lines in this reconstructed language. His haunting delivery, characterized by drawn-out syllables and guttural vibratos, imbued Count Orlok with an otherworldly presence.

The use of Dacian extended beyond dialogue. Eggers integrated the language into the film’s score, with the choir chanting in Dacian during key scenes. Composer Mark Korven collaborated with linguists to craft these chants, blending the ancient tongue with modern musical techniques to evoke a sense of primordial dread.

This linguistic layer added authenticity to the film’s historical setting. Orlok’s castle, looming ominously in the Carpathians, felt less like a Gothic fantasy and more like an archaeological relic, with its inhabitant an unsettling artifact of a bygone era.

The Impact of Dacian on Orlok’s Characterization

By speaking Dacian, Orlok becomes more than just a vampire; he is a relic of an ancient world, a being whose existence predates modern civilization. His use of Dacian underscores his otherness—not only as a creature of the night but as a remnant of a culture swallowed by time. When Orlok casts his spells or utters incantations in this archaic tongue, he bridges the gap between myth and history, blurring the lines between legend and reality.

The choice of Dacian also adds a layer of tragedy to Orlok’s character. He is not merely undead; he is untethered from time, clinging to a language and culture that no longer exist. In this sense, his monstrousness is amplified by his isolation—not only from humanity but from history itself.

How Cinema Revived Interest in Historical Comparative Linguistics

The use of the Dacian language in Nosferatu demonstrates the power of language in storytelling. Count Orlok, through his forgotten language, becomes a living monument to an ancient culture lost to time. The Dacian language grants Orlok an identity beyond that of a typical vampire, transforming him into a symbol of a heritage that continues to haunt collective memory. When Orlok delivers his incantations or chants hymns in Dacian, the boundaries between myth and reality blur, bridging history with the imaginative realm of horror.

The introduction of Dacian in Nosferatu rekindled public interest in historical comparative linguistics and extinct languages. The film used the language as an aesthetic element but also highlighted its importance as a remnant of historical memory. By reviving this extinct language, director Robert Eggers not only enriched the narrative of the film but also sparked renewed curiosity about the history and culture of the Dacians. Linguists and historians have observed increased public interest in Dacian following the movie's release, with some suggesting that the project could lead to further scholarly research on this enigmatic language.

In Balkan Region Tags News

Thessaloniki’s New Revolutionary Metro-Museum: A Global First and Europe’s Most Advanced

November 30, 2024

Ancient Marvels Meet Modern Innovation in Thessaloniki’s One-of-a-Kind Metro-Museum

Thessaloniki, a city with over 2,300 years of continuous history, has just unveiled a groundbreaking metro system that is not merely a means of transportation but a journey through the layers of its storied past. Hailed as the most modern metro system in Europe and the first of its kind in the world to integrate an archaeological museum, the Thessaloniki Metro is a shining example of innovation and preservation working hand in hand.

A Metro Unlike Any Other

The Thessaloniki Metro isn’t just about cutting-edge trains and improved urban mobility; it is a window into history, with every station offering a glimpse of the city’s ancient and Byzantine heritage. During its construction, which began in 2006, excavations unearthed thousands of archaeological treasures, transforming the project into the largest archaeological dig in northern Greece.

The finds include a headless statue of Aphrodite, intricate mosaics, golden wreaths, Roman-era plumbing systems, and over 300,000 other artifacts. The crown jewel is undoubtedly the preservation of the city's Decumanus Maximus—the main thoroughfare of Roman Thessaloniki—which lies beneath the bustling Egnatia Street. This ancient road, lined with marble columns and featuring a Byzantine marketplace, is now displayed in situ at Venizelou Station, offering commuters a direct connection to the city’s past.

Venizelou Station: The World’s First Open Metro Museum

The centerpiece of the metro is Venizelou Station, a marvel of engineering and archaeological preservation. This station allows visitors to experience an open museum underground, featuring a Byzantine road complete with shops, workshops, and other urban elements preserved exactly as they were unearthed. The station’s design ensures that passengers and visitors alike can admire these ancient treasures in their original context, creating a seamless blend of ancient and modern.

Unlike other metro systems worldwide, Thessaloniki’s approach goes beyond displaying artifacts in glass cases. Here, history surrounds you—beneath your feet, beside you as you walk to the platforms, and even on the walls that frame the station.

A City Shaped by History

Thessaloniki’s unique identity has always been shaped by its geography and history. Founded in 315 BCE by King Cassander of Macedonia, the city has been a melting pot of cultures and civilizations. It thrived as a vital hub in the Roman Empire, became a bastion of Byzantine culture, and endured centuries of Ottoman rule. Its location on the Via Egnatia, a major trade and military route connecting Rome to Constantinople, cemented its role as a bridge between East and West.

This complex history is embedded in the layers of soil beneath the city. Every step of the metro’s construction was a delicate dance between modern engineering and the safeguarding of these historical treasures, a process that demanded patience, ingenuity, and collaboration between archaeologists and engineers.

Challenges and Triumphs

The project was not without controversy and challenges. Initial plans called for some artifacts to be relocated, sparking public outcry and a legal battle that reached Greece’s highest court. Ultimately, a solution was found: the metro’s design was reconfigured to preserve and display the discoveries in situ. This decision not only delayed the project but also significantly increased its budget, with archaeological work alone costing over €132 million.

Despite these hurdles, the end result is a triumph. Thessaloniki’s metro now stands as a global model for how infrastructure projects can respect and enhance cultural heritage rather than erase it.

A Journey Through Time

For residents and visitors alike, traveling on the Thessaloniki Metro is more than a commute—it is an immersive experience. From the marble-paved roads of Roman times to Byzantine crossroads and Ottoman-era artifacts, each station tells a part of the city’s story. The metro serves as both a practical urban solution and a cultural treasure trove, ensuring that Thessaloniki’s rich history is preserved for generations to come.

A Vision for the Future

As Thessaloniki steps into the future with one of the most advanced metro systems in Europe, it does so with a profound respect for its past. The city has shown the world that progress and preservation can coexist, creating a legacy that honors its ancient roots while embracing modernity. The Thessaloniki Metro isn’t just a transportation network—it’s a celebration of a city where history is never forgotten, even as it surges forward into the 21st century.

5e339cd8-2575-4ae6-b306-5558e8b6bfce.png
7db2c7a0-196f-43cb-97f2-250701be29eb.png
068efd2b-f7d7-4a72-8ff8-f252cb37a94a.png
45236d948a2e9f986024323d7d6adfed.jpg
arxaiotites-metro-thessalonikis13_1.jpg
attiko-kentriki.jpg
metro__3_.jpg
thessaloniki-arthrou-0.jpg
thessaloniki-metro__2_.jpg
thessaloniki-metro__3_.jpg
thessaloniki-metro__4_ (1).jpg
Στιγμιότυπο οθόνης 2024-11-30 185918.png
In Byzantine Middle Ages Tags News, Archaeology's Greatest Finds, The Archaeologist Editorial Group
Older Posts →
Featured
488657894_575421028886902_4044781128690692493_n (1).jpg
Aug 16, 2025
“Denny,” the Denisovan–Neanderthal Girl: why one small bone changed the story of our mixed human past
Aug 16, 2025
Read More →
Aug 16, 2025
Denmark to remove Copenhagen’s “pornographic and very primitive” mermaid statue
Aug 16, 2025
Denmark to remove Copenhagen’s “pornographic and very primitive” mermaid statue
Aug 16, 2025
Read More →
Aug 16, 2025
Στιγμιότυπο οθόνης 2025-08-11 011206.png
Aug 11, 2025
The Limestone Icarus Memorial of Poland: Nazi Ambition Carved in Stone
Aug 11, 2025
Read More →
Aug 11, 2025
Nemea_-_Temple_of_Zeus (1).jpg
Aug 9, 2025
10 Overlooked but Unforgettable Archaeological Sites in Greece to Explore This Summer
Aug 9, 2025
Read More →
Aug 9, 2025
Early_migrations_mercator.svg.png
Aug 8, 2025
Cro-Magnon DNA, Out of Africa, and the Myths That Won’t Die
Aug 8, 2025
Read More →
Aug 8, 2025
εικόνα_2025-08-08_212250261.png
Aug 8, 2025
Koalas Have Fingerprints Almost Identical to Ours — Here’s Why That’s Astonishing
Aug 8, 2025
Read More →
Aug 8, 2025
read more

Powered by The archaeologist