Was This Odysseus’ Sanctuary? New Discovery on Ithaca Says Yes

New Important Findings Link the Hellenistic Monumental Complex with the ‘Odysseion’ sanctuary in Ithaca

Significant new findings from archaeological research on the island of Ithaca appear to support the identification of the Hellenistic monumental complex at Agios Athanasios in the area of Stavros, northern Ithaca, with the “Odysseion” — the sanctuary dedicated to the hero Odysseus.

The Greek Ministry of Culture announced today that ongoing excavations at the site have revealed new structural and typological evidence that strengthens this identification. According to the announcement, the central structure uncovered in the complex shows characteristics of a sanctuary dedicated to a hero or demigod. Additionally, inscriptions and findings from previous excavation phases reinforce the hypothesis that this site was associated with Odysseus and the worship practices linked to him during the Hellenistic period.

Archaeological research in the area has been conducted since 2022 under the direction of archaeologist Thanasis Papadopoulos, Professor Emeritus at the University of Ioannina. The excavations are supported by the Ephorate of Antiquities of Kefallinia and Ithaca, in collaboration with the local community.

The findings include architectural elements typical of monumental constructions of the Hellenistic period, as well as movable finds — such as ceramics and votive offerings — which are consistent with hero cults. A prominent part of the site includes a large structure with features of a temple or sanctuary, along with supporting buildings and outdoor areas likely used for ritual practices.

The research team highlights that this site matches the descriptions of the “Odysseion” from ancient sources and supports the long-standing tradition that associates the area with the epic hero Odysseus. The discovery contributes significantly to the historical and archaeological understanding of the island and strengthens Ithaca’s cultural identity as the homeland of Odysseus.

The excavations are expected to continue with further study and conservation of the site. The Ministry emphasizes the importance of the work for both scientific research and cultural tourism on the island.

The Rare Square Theater of Calydon: Where Drama Met a Strange Geometry

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Calydon/Kalydon: Mythic City and Sacred Sanctuary

Ancient Kalydon, in western Greece’s Aetolia region, was steeped in legend and worship. In Greek mythology it was founded by Aetolus and named after his son Calydon, and it gained renown as the setting of the Calydonian Boar Hunt—a famous saga in which the goddess Artemis, offended by King Oeneus’s neglect, sent a monstrous boar to ravage the land. Heroes like Atalanta and Meleager converged to slay the beast, linking Kalydon’s name with one of the best pre-Trojan War adventures. The city’s prestige continued into historical times as a major Aetolian center. Homer praised the “lovely” fertile plain of Calydon in the Iliad, and later geographer Strabo noted that Kalydon (and its neighbor Pleuron) had once been the “ornament” of Greece—though by his own era (1st century BC) they had faded into insignificance .

At the heart of Kalydon’s cultural identity was the Laphrion, a sprawling extramural sanctuary dedicated to Artemis Laphria and Apollo Laphrios. This sanctuary, just outside the city’s walls near the main gate, was one of the most important in Aetolia. Archaeology shows the cult was ancient: by the late 7th century BC there were two adjacent temples—one to Artemis and one to Apollo—adorned with painted clay roof tiles. The sanctuary was repeatedly expanded; a grand new temple to Artemis was erected in the 6th century BC, then rebuilt in stone around 400 BC, ultimately boasting a gold-and-ivory cult statue of Artemis crafted by artisans from Naupaktos. Artemis Laphria’s worship was renowned for its fiery annual festival, the Laphria, involving a spectacular sacrifice. Ancient accounts describe how during this festival a towering altar was piled with logs and live animals—deer, boars, wolves, bears, even birds—and set ablaze, with any creatures that leapt from the flames thrown back in by the participants. This dramatic rite underscored Artemis’s fierce aspect, and indeed the cult of Artemis Laphria was so esteemed that when Rome’s Emperor Augustus devastated Calydon and relocated its people, he had the magnificent statue of the goddess transported to Patras, where the Laphria festival continued in her honor. Apollo Laphrios, Artemis’s brother, was venerated alongside her at Kalydon, though Artemis clearly took center stage as the city’s divine protector. Together, their sanctuary was a focal point for regional gatherings, athletic games, and devotion. It is here, on the slopes of Mount Varassova overlooking the Gulf of Corinth, amid a place of myth and piety, that an intriguing architectural gem was discovered: the ancient Theatre of Kalydon, where drama quite literally met geometry.

Unearthing a Rare Square Theatre

Modern eyes first glimpsed Kalydon’s theater only by accident. In the 1960s, construction of a new national road cut across the east slope of Laphrion Hill (also called Lafriou), revealing tiers of stone seats buried in the earth. Initially, archaeologists mistook the remains for a bouleuterion (council hall), perhaps due to their atypical layout. It wasn’t until systematic excavations began—in 2001–2003 and again in 2011–2013 by the Greek Archaeological Service and the Danish Institute at Athens—that the true nature of the structure became clear. The dig uncovered a full-fledged theater, albeit one with a most unusual design. Unlike the familiar fan-shaped Greek theaters of the Classical and Hellenistic world, Kalydon’s theater had a “pi-shaped” plan: its cavea (seating area) wrapped around three sides of the performance space instead of forming a broad semicircle. In place of the typical circular orchestra, Kalydon offered a near-perfect square. The orchestra floor, about 16 by 14 meters in dimensions, forms an almost square stage at the center of the theater. The lowest tiers of seats meet at right angles, creating a rectangular, U-shaped audience arrangement that frames the square orchestra’s north, east, and west sides .

Three sides of the square orchestra in the unearthed theater of Kalydon have seating carved into the hillside. This pi-shaped layout (open to the south) is unique among Greek theaters, which usually featured circular orchestras and fully rounded seating tiers.

Archaeologists identified 31 rows of limestone seats in the theater’s auditorium, organized in straight tiers that form 90° corners at the orchestra’s northeast and northwest edges. This rectilinear geometry is striking—ancient Greek theaters “typically have circular orchestras and semicircular seating arrangements,” as the site’s investigators note. In Kalydon’s case, the lower nine rows of seats belong to an earlier construction phase (Classical period), while the remaining upper seats were added later during a renovation in the Hellenistic era. Intriguingly, the transition between the straight seating sections and the more curved upper tiers is smoothed by slightly rounded corners in the top rows, creating a continuous connection despite the square plan below. The result is a theater that is both angular and flowing—a carefully geometrical design that may reflect advanced architectural planning. In fact, an acoustic study of Kalydon’s theater found that its blueprint was likely calculated with “great care using geometrical shapes—the square, the diagonals, and quarter circles.” By the 4th century BC, Greek mathematicians like Eudoxus and Aristoxenus had formalized geometry and music theory, and the theater’s design seems to echo that sophistication. The square orchestra, for instance, could be inscribed with diagonals and quarters to align sightlines or acoustic focal points. Simulations suggest that in such a Π-shaped theater, the audience’s attention (and sound focus) would naturally center on the middle of the orchestra. The downside was some minor echo in the far corners of the seating, whereas fully semicircular theaters distribute sound more evenly. Thus, the architects of Kalydon achieved generally excellent acoustics in most areas of the audience seating, although later Greek theaters favored a curved design to eliminate those dead spots.

Despite its unorthodox form, the Theatre of Kalydon was a substantial venue. The cavea’s 31 rows could accommodate an estimated 5,000–5,600 spectators, a remarkably large crowd—far exceeding what the small city’s own population would have been. This theater's capacity suggests it served as a venue for significant events that drew attendees from the surrounding region, possibly during festivals or pan-Aetolian gatherings. To support so many viewers, the auditorium was partly hewn into the hillside’s soft sandstone and partly built up with earthen embankments and retaining walls, especially toward the open southern side. The absence of permanent stone staircases (klimakes) between seating sections suggests the use of wooden or removable aisles to access the rows. On the open end of the “U,” where the audience faces south, evidence of a stage building was uncovered, confirming the theatre’s theatrical function. Excavators found the foundations of a broad proskenion (stage facade) just east of the orchestra, including a stylobate that once held 10 to 12 columns. Several Ionic column bases and fragments of capitals survived, indicating the proskenium had elegant colonnades in the Ionic order. In front of the stage, rectangular post holes suggest there were doorways or movable panels, and a drainage duct led runoff to a square cistern—a smart bit of engineering to keep the orchestra dry during performances. Abundant terracotta roof tiles were also found around the stage, showing that parts of the stage building (perhaps a two-story skene at the back and a covered proskenion in front) were roofed. Actors may have performed on a raised logeion (stage platform) accessed by stone ramps flanking the proskenion. In essence, by the 3rd century BC, Kalydon’s theater had all the typical amenities of a Hellenistic theater—save for the atypical shape of its “stage” area.

a Sacred Space or a Showplace? Functions of the Square Stage

Why did Kalydon’s theater take on this rare square form? Its evolving role and the sanctuary's primacy in its construction likely provide the answer. Archaeologists have discerned at least two major construction phases at the site, suggesting the space did not begin as a standard drama theater. The earliest phase (the lower nine seat rows) may date to the Classical period (5th–4th century BC), before the Hellenistic-stage addition. Some scholars speculate that this original construction wasn’t a theater at all but perhaps a political assembly area or cult venue. Researchers even published the structure's discovery as a potential bouleuterion (town hall). Dr. Lazaros Kolonas, who led early excavations, proposed a compelling theory: the square orchestra might reflect an initial use for mystery cult rituals or religious gatherings, long before plays were staged there. The site’s proximity to Artemis’s temple supports this idea. We can imagine rows of spectators (or worshippers) seated on three sides of a square courtyard, observing sacred dances, sacrifices, or initiatory rites in honor of Artemis Laphria or Apollo. This configuration is almost reminiscent of a monumental temenos courtyard or an open-air ecclesiasterium, rather than a typical theater. Indeed, the sanctuary context suggests the space could have hosted ceremonial performances—perhaps chanting choirs, hymns, athletic displays, or reenactments during the annual Laphria festival—that benefited from a broad, flat floor. If the earliest phase served flexible cult purposes, the absence of a permanent stage building makes sense. Archaeologists noted a curious structural detail that might support this: a low retaining wall or terrace break behind the eighth row of seats, possibly demarcating the boundary of the original enclosure. Later, the community dismantled that wall and extended the seating upwards to expand the theater's capacity.

By the Hellenistic period (likely the 3rd century BC, based on pottery finds), Kalydon underwent a theatrical upgrade: the stone proskenion and skene were built, and the cavea was enlarged. From this point on, the complex functioned as a genuine theater for dramatic and musical performances. Rune Frederiksen, one of the site’s modern editors, argues that the peculiar form of the orchestra might have been well-suited to choral performances or pageants involving groups of singers/actors. A square orchestra could accommodate larger choruses or ensemble action that moved in formations different from the circular dances of classical Greek drama. It’s notable that Kalydon’s design essentially puts a premium on frontal viewing: the audience is concentrated on three sides focusing toward the center, which might have been advantageous for certain spectacles or even speeches. Yet Frederiksen and his colleagues do not exclude standard dramatic performances at Kalydon. The discovery of the stage house and ornate facade leaves little doubt that tragedies and comedies—or at least poetic recitations, concerts, and other entertainments—were held here in the city’s heyday. The theater’s impressive size also suggests an intent to serve a broad public. Perhaps during major religious festivals or regional assemblies, Kalydon’s square “theatron” hosted crowds from across Aetolia. Scholars have even speculated that the Aetolian League (the federal state to which Kalydon belonged) might have used the theater for large meetings or festivals, given the seating far exceeds the local populace. In any case, the theater’s function appears to have been multifaceted—a place where sacred ritual, civic gathering, and staged art all overlapped.

The subsequent fate of the theater aligns with Kalydon’s changing fortunes. Archaeological evidence indicates that the theater was no longer in use by the late Hellenistic period and most likely abandoned by the early 1st century BC. This time frame corresponds with the tumult of Roman conquest: after 31 BC, Augustus forcibly resettled the region’s population to his new city of Nicopolis, turning old Kalydon into ruins. In the theater itself, excavators found hints of secondary use—cooking pots, loom weights, and even two human burials—suggesting people sheltered or lived in the derelict structure after its theatrical life ended. One can imagine the grand stone tiers that once hosted Artemis’s devotees and theatergoers eventually becoming just another part of an abandoned hillside, frequented by farmers or squatters. Over time, nature and silence took over, until the modern world rediscovered this sleeping monument.

Theatrical Experiments: From Kalydon to Thorikos and Messene

Kalydon's theater stands out as a rarity of design, yet it is not entirely alone in defying the norms of Greek theater architecture. Throughout antiquity, especially in earlier periods, Greek builders experimented with different stage and seating layouts before the semicircular template became canonical. In fact, some of the earliest theaters known have layouts that make Kalydon’s seem less bizarre in context. A prime example is the Theatre of Thorikos in Attica—often cited as the oldest surviving stone theater (late 6th–5th century BC). Thorikos’s seating plan is elongated and irregular rather than a neat half-circle. Its rows form an almost oval or rectilinear shape, with a central section of seats nearly straight and only the flanks gently curved. Correspondingly, the orchestra of Thorikos is rectangular, about 16×30 meters—significantly longer than wide. The corners of that orchestra are slightly rounded where they meet the cavea, but essentially it is a long rectangle open on one side. Scholars believe this form reflects an early stage of theater development, when choral dances and ceremonies preceded the classical circular orchestra. At Thorikos, tellingly, a small temple of Dionysus stood adjacent to the orchestra, and a rectangular altar occupied part of the orchestra floor. The arrangement suggests that in 5th-century Thorikos, as perhaps in early Kalydon, the theatre area served double duty as a sacred performance ground for Dionysian cult rituals and proto-drama. Only later would standard round orchestras (of about 20 m diameter) become common—a transition that seems to have occurred around the mid-4th century BC. Kalydon’s square stage, then, might be considered a local holdover of an archaic form or a deliberate adaptation to cult practice, persisting into the Hellenistic age.

Another instructive comparison comes from Messene, a large city in the Peloponnese, where the Hellenistic theatre shows innovation of a different sort. The Theatre of Messene, built in the 3rd century BC, conformed to the usual circular orchestra design, but archaeologists have uncovered evidence that its stage buildings were moveable—a remarkable technical feat. Excavations revealed stone tracks (rows of cut grooves) on either side of Messene’s stage and a long storage room behind it. Researchers from Kumamoto University concluded that these tracks were used to roll a wooden proskenion/skene in and out, effectively creating a mobile stage backdrop. In other words, Messene’s architects engineered a way to slide the entire stage facade on wheels, likely to change scenery or convert the venue for different uses. This discovery, along with similar traces at Megalopolis and Sparta, proved that by the late Hellenistic period, Greek theaters could be technologically very advanced—capable of scene-shifting mechanisms over 2,000 years ago. While Messene’s experiment dealt with stage machinery rather than orchestra shape, it underscores a key point: ancient theaters were not all uniform. Different cities, at different times, tailored their theaters to their needs, whether ritual, artistic, or political. Kalydon chose an unusual geometric layout; Thorikos retained an oblong dancing floor; Messene toyed with movable stages. These variations remind us that Greek theater design was an evolutionary process, full of regional quirks and one-off solutions, rather than a monolithic tradition of carbon-copy amphitheaters.

Yet another compelling case, less frequently mentioned in general discussions but highly relevant, is the Theatre of the Demos Evonymos, located in the region of Trachones (modern Alimos) in southern Attica. This theatre, first excavated in the 1960s, is remarkable for its strictly rectangular orchestra—a design that predates and may even foreshadow the square orchestra at Kalydon. Dating roughly to the late 5th to early 4th century BCE, the Evonymos theatre is thought to have served one of the most important demes (districts) of the Athenian polis. The orchestra is laid out as a clean-cut rectangle, not only in floor plan but also in its functional conception: it likely accommodated formal dithyrambic or civic performances, which did not necessarily require the circular dance floor of later dramatic choruses. What makes the Evonymos theatre particularly valuable in this context is that it represents a pre-canonical phase in Attic theatrical evolution. Some scholars argue that rectangular orchestras were perhaps common in the earlier, locally-managed deme theatres before the influence of Dionysian theater architecture from Athens imposed standardized round orchestras. The lack of a curved koilon and the tight geometry of the orchestra at Evonymos show that performance space in the Classical period was still fluid, shaped by practical needs and local traditions more than aesthetic ideals. It is entirely plausible that Kalydon’s architects, working in a provincial and religious context, drew on such archaic Attic models or shared ritual precedents when opting for a rectilinear form.

Legacy of the Square Stage

Today, the ancient theater of Kalydon offers a fascinating glimpse into this diversity of Greek architectural and cultural practice. Often overshadowed by their more famous circular counterparts like Epidaurus, square or rectilinear theaters such as Kalydon’s are gems that illuminate the range of theatrical traditions. In Kalydon’s case, the theater’s very form captures a convergence of influences—religious ritual, civic life, and geometric experimentation. The theater sits at the intersection of drama and sanctuary, where performances can both honor the gods and entertain the people. As one walks among the weathered, blocky rows of its auditorium (some still in situ on the hillside of Evinochori), it’s easy to envision a perpetual front-row seat to history: to the chants of an Artemis cult choir, to the speeches of an assembly, or to the acts of a traveling theater troupe playing out under the Aetolian sky.

Rediscovered in modern times and still under study, the Kalydon theater continues to surprise archaeologists. Recent publications have meticulously documented its architecture in two volumes, confirming that what was once deemed a “so-called theatre or bouleuterion” is indeed a fully developed theatre—but one that bends the rules of Greek design. Its square stage and straight-edged koilon may have been unusual, yet they proved functional and resonant for its community’s purposes. In the broader history of theater architecture, Kalydon now holds a special place: a reminder that the ancient Greeks, famed for their love of symmetry and circles, sometimes thought outside the circle. Here, on the slopes of Kalydon, drama met geometry in the most literal way—leaving us a stone footprint of innovation, piety, and human creativity from over two millennia ago.

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References:

• Lazaros Kolonas, “Theatre of Kalydon – Description” (Diazoma.gr)

• Danish Institute at Athens, Calydon Excavation Project – site reports

• Rune Frederiksen & Olympia Vikatou (eds.), The Ancient Theatre at Kalydon in Aitolia (2024) – via BMCR review

• Tasos Kokkinidis, Greek Reporter: “The Rare Square Theater of Ancient Calydon” (2025)

• Signe Barfoed, “Rediscovering Artemis Laphria at Kalydon” – Proceedings of the Danish Institute at Athens IX (2019)

• Pausanias, Description of Greece 7.18.8–11

• Thorikos Theatre – Ancient Theatre Archive/Diazoma

• Kumamoto Univ. research on Messene theatre (ScienceDaily 2017) .

• Paga, Jessica, “Deme Theaters in Attica and the Trittys System” Published in Hesperia, Vol. 79, No. 3 (2010)

The Panhellenic League: Evolution of an Early Greek National Ideal

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The term Panhellenic means “all-Greek,” reflecting a vision of unity among the often fractious city-states of ancient Greece. Throughout classical antiquity, Greeks shared a common language, religion, and cultural heritage, yet political unity was rare, due to the city-state as a political and social formation system. The concept of a Panhellenic League – an alliance embracing all Hellenes – evolved over time as circumstances compelled cooperation. From the existential threat of the Persian invasions to the grand ambitions of Macedonian kings, the ideal of Greek unity was invoked to rally support and legitimize authority. This article traces the development of the Panhellenic ideal from its early manifestation during the Persian Wars, through Philip II’s unification of Greece, to Alexander the Great’s use of Panhellenism – notably exemplified by the Priene Inscription. It also compares these efforts to later Hellenistic leagues (Aetolian and Achaean), examining how shared culture, religion, and alliances fostered unity and continuity in the Greek world.

Panhellenic Unity in the Persian Wars

In the face of Persia’s massive invasion led by King Xerxes (480–479 BC), the Greeks for the first time formed a broad coalition to defend their homeland. In 481 BC, delegates from numerous city-states met at a Congress at the Isthmus of Corinth, setting aside rivalries to forge a Hellenic League against the “barbarian” invader. Thirty-one states – including Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, and others – pledged a common cause. Long-standing feuds were momentarily buried as they agreed to coordinate strategy and pool resources under Sparta’s leadership. This unprecedented alliance testified to a growing awareness of a shared Hellenic identity transcending individual polis interests. They swore oaths (reportedly “by Zeus, Poseidon and other gods”) to punish any Greek city that medized (sided with Persia) and to honor their mutual defense pact. Religious tradition buttressed this unity: for example, the league declared that if any Greek traitor aided Persia, one-tenth of that offender’s wealth would be dedicated to Apollo’s oracle at Delphi as punishment – a solemn spiritual deterrent. The oracle of Delphi itself played a unifying role, as Greeks jointly consulted its prophecies for guidance on how to survive the onslaught.

Though Greek unity was far from complete (many states remained neutral or under Persian sway, and Sparta and Athens still squabbled over navy command), the alliance achieved remarkable success. United Greek forces won decisive victories at Salamis and Plataea, halting the Persian aggression. In the aftermath, the Greeks commemorated their collective triumph in ways that emphasized Panhellenic solidarity. At Delphi, they erected the famous Serpent Column – a bronze tripod of intertwined serpents – inscribed with the names of all the Greek cities that stood together against Persia. This monument, dedicated to Apollo, symbolized how shared myths, gods, and resolve had bound the Hellenes in their hour of need. Similarly, festivals like the Olympic Games, which had long been open to all Greeks, took on added significance after the war as celebrations of a common Greek victory. The Persian Wars thus ignited the “first seeds of Panhellenism”, proving that when faced with a common enemy and inspired by common culture, the disparate Greeks could act as one people. The ideal of Hellenic unity — however fleeting in practice — had been vividly realized and would be remembered in later generations as a golden example of what the Greeks could accomplish together.

SerpentColumn, Delphi

Philip II and the Panhellenic Ideal

In the fourth century BC, the Greek city-states returned to internecine conflicts and power struggles. Yet the Panhellenic ideal did not disappear; instead, it was revived as a compelling political vision by thinkers like Isocrates and eventually put into action by Philip II of Macedon. Isocrates, an Athenian orator, watched decades of warfare between Greek poleis (notably the Peloponnesian War and its aftermath) and concluded that only a unified Greek effort against a foreign foe could end the cycle of chaos. In 380 BC, he wrote Panegyricus, urging Greeks to reconcile and jointly campaign against Persia. Later, in 346 BC, Isocrates penned an open letter To Philip, imploring the rising Macedonian king to assume leadership of a pan-Hellenic crusade. He argued that Greece’s infighting and the poverty of many Greeks could be solved by homonoia (concord) under a single leader and a common enterprise of conquest. Philip was to “unite the Greeks under his leadership in a crusade against Persia,” a radical proposal at the time. The idea was that by rallying all Hellenes to avenge the Persian wars and liberate Greek cities in Asia, Philip would both stop the fratricidal Greek wars and channel Greece’s energies outward. That a prominent Athenian intellectual would call on a Macedonian king to save Greece underscored the desperate straits of the divided city-states – and also heralded a new reality in which Macedon had become a powerful part of the Greek world.

Philip II proved receptive to this Panhellenic platform, though certainly his own imperial ambitions were at play. In 338 BC, after decisively defeating an alliance of southern Greek states at the Battle of Chaeronea, Philip positioned himself as the hegemon (leader) of Greece. The next year he organized the League of Corinth (also known simply as the “Hellenic League”), a federation of Greek city-states under Macedonian leadership. For the first time in history, virtually all of Greece (with the notable exception of Sparta, which initially refused to join) was politically united in a single confederation. At the league’s inaugural council in Corinth, delegates from each member state (elected in proportion to their military strength) agreed to a Common Peace among Greeks and officially declared war on the Persian Empire. Philip was appointed strategos autokrator (supreme commander) of this Panhellenic war of revenge. The league’s charter invoked the memory of Xerxes’ invasion and the desecration of Greek temples, framing the coming campaign as righteous retribution and a fulfillment of Greece’s age-old struggle against Asiatic despotism. By harnessing Greek resentment of Persia and the nostalgia for unity, Philip endowed his imperial project with an ideological cloak of Panhellenism.

Religion and shared culture were important in legitimizing Philip’s leadership. The Macedonian kings themselves had long claimed Greek ancestry (Philip traced his lineage to Heracles) and participated in Panhellenic institutions to prove their Hellenic identity. Philip famously competed in the Olympic Games – winning the horse race in 356 BC – and sponsored lavish religious dedications. After Chaeronea, he erected the Philippeion at Olympia, a grand circular shrine within the sacred Altis precinct. Ostensibly dedicated to Zeus, it housed gold-and-ivory statues of Philip, his queen Olympias, and their son Alexander (as well as Philip’s parents), effectively placing his own dynasty among the gods and heroes in a Panhellenic sanctuary. This striking commemoration sent a clear message: Macedon was now a principal defender of Greece, and Philip’s family shared in the divine favor that traditionally smiled upon Hellenic victors. By honoring Zeus at Olympia and presenting himself as a pious benefactor, Philip reinforced his appeal to Greek sentiment. He also leveraged the Amphictyonic Council at Delphi – intervening in the Fourth Sacred War (naming himself protector of Apollo’s shrine) – to further cast himself as the champion of Greek religion and stability. In these ways, Philip II wove together military might, diplomacy, and cultural patronage to make the Panhellenic ideal a reality under his hegemony.

Alexander the Great and the Panhellenic Ideal

Philip’s assassination in 336 BC briefly threatened the new league, but his twenty-year-old son Alexander III (the Great) quickly secured Macedonian power and was acclaimed as Philip’s successor in the Panhellenic crusade. Alexander inherited both the military apparatus of the league and its ideological mission. In 334 BC, he crossed the Hellespont into Asia as the elected hegemon of the Greeks, proclaiming himself leader of a united Hellenic invasion to “take revenge” for the Persian invasions of generations past. Early in the campaign, Alexander took deliberate steps to emphasize that he fought on behalf of all Greece (Sparta again excepted) and under the auspices of the Greek gods. For example, after winning the Battle of the Granicus (334 BC) – his first major victory against the Persians – Alexander sent 300 suits of captured Persian armor as a dedication to Athena on the Acropolis of Athens. Along with this offering, he ordered a bold inscription: “Alexander, son of Philip, and the Greeks – except the Lacedaemonians – dedicate these spoils from the barbarians of Asia.” This dramatic gesture served multiple purposes. It explicitly linked Alexander with the collective Greek effort (“Alexander… and the Greeks”), pointedly snubbed Sparta for its absence, and celebrated vengeance for the impieties of 480 BC (the armor hung in Athens as proof that the sack of the Acropolis had been avenged). By dedicating enemy spoils to Athena, Alexander cast himself as the pious avenger of the desecrated Greek gods. At the same time, as one modern historian noted, he was shrewdly “emphasizing the usually denied ‘Greekness’ of the Macedonians,” reminding all that Macedon now stood at the forefront of Hellas.

Alexander’s conduct during his campaign continued to invoke Panhellenic traditions to legitimize his expanding rule. He made a point of honoring the great Panhellenic sanctuaries and heroes: for instance, detouring to Troy to pay homage to Achilles (his legendary ancestor), dedicating a temple to Athena there, and reportedly running naked around Achilles’ tomb in symbolic respect. He visited Delphi before setting out, seeking a blessing (though the Pythia was initially reluctant to prophesize, Alexander boldly grabbed her until she exclaimed “My son, you are invincible!” – which he took as the oracle he wanted). After each major victory, Alexander sent a portion of the spoils to Greek cities and temples: to Delphi, to Olympia, to Dion (in Macedon, but a Panhellenic religious center for Zeus) and elsewhere. These acts reinforced his image as protector of the Greek faith and avenger of Persian sacrilege. Indeed, when he finally seized and burned the Persian capital Persepolis in 330 BC, contemporaries viewed it as retribution for Xerxes’ burning of Athens’ temples 150 years earlier – a tit-for-tat justice completed by the Panhellenic champion. By invoking the memory of the Persian Wars and continuously dedicating victories to the gods, Alexander maintained Greek goodwill and participation (at least nominally) in his war of conquest, even as his army pushed far beyond the original objectives.

Alexander grabs Pythia and drags her to the Apollo shrine to receive the oracle, by Louis Jean Francois Lagrenée. Public Domain

Later Hellenistic Leagues and the Legacy of Panhellenism

After Alexander’s untimely death in 323 BC, his empire fragmented and the direct political unity of the Greeks under a single hegemon was short-lived. Yet the ideal of Panhellenic unity and shared identity did not vanish. During the Hellenistic period (3rd–2nd centuries BC), new federations of Greek city-states emerged, most notably the Aetolian League and the Achaean League. These leagues, though regional rather than pan–Greek in scope, drew inspiration from earlier Greek alliances and maintained important aspects of cultural continuity.

The Aetolian League rose to prominence in Central Greece, originally a union of the Aetolian communities that expanded to include many other cities. It was a federal state (koinon) with its own assemblies and magistrates, demonstrating that Greeks could form a broader political structure while preserving local autonomy. The Aetolians, proud of their rugged independence, actively invoked Panhellenic themes to boost their standing. In 279 BC, when a horde of Gauls (Galatians) invaded Greece and threatened Delphi, the Aetolian League took the lead in defending the sacred site. The Gauls were repelled, and this feat was celebrated across Greece as a deliverance akin to the Persian War of old – Polybius even ranked it alongside the victories over Persia, and Pausanias later called the Gallic threat the greatest peril Greece had faced since Xerxes. In gratitude for saving Apollo’s sanctuary, the Delphic Amphictyonic Council admitted the Aetolian League as a member and granted it a place of honor in overseeing Delphi. The Aetolians then organized the Soteria (“Deliverance”) festival at Delphi, a new Panhellenic festival (with athletic and musical contests) commemorating the Greek victory over the barbarians. This was a deliberate echo of earlier Panhellenic games and helped project the Aetolians as inheritors of the legacy of Greek unity. Through their league, they championed themselves as protectors of Hellenism – even as they also used the league for expansion and power politics. Culturally, the Aetolian League’s prominence at Delphi and its festival of Soteria show a continuity of Panhellenic religious tradition: Greek states still came together for common worship and celebration of collective victories, now under Aetolia’s auspices.

The Achaean League, based in the Peloponnese, likewise provides an example of Greeks uniting in a federal structure with cultural cohesion. Revived in 280 BC, the Achaean League eventually bound together a dozen or more city-states including not just the Achaean heartland but cities like Corinth, Megalopolis, Argos, and others. It had a constitution with a federal assembly and annually elected strategos (general), pointing to a sophisticated attempt at shared governance among formerly independent cities. The league is often studied as an early model of federalism, demonstrating “how city-states could unite under a common political structure while retaining local autonomy”. Under dynamic leaders such as Aratus of Sicyon and later Philopoemen, the Achaean League not only fought wars (against Spartan kings and Macedonian interference) but also fostered a sense of collective identity among its members. They issued common coinage and coordinated policies, projecting an image of a unified Achaean state. Culturally, the member cities shared in religious festivals and traditions; for instance, the league likely sponsored games and observed common rituals (the Achaean assembly met at the sanctuary of Zeus Homarios at Aegium in early years, indicating a religious element to their unity). The League’s cultural contributions included economic and social integration of the Peloponnese and “fostering a sense of shared identity and cooperation among its member cities”. In many ways, the Achaean League attempted to revive the cooperative spirit of the Hellenic League, though on a regional scale and without a single monarch.

Despite the successes of these leagues in creating pockets of unity, they also highlight the limits of the Panhellenic ideal in an era dominated by powerful kingdoms and, eventually, Rome. The Aetolian and Achaean Leagues sometimes allied but often quarreled, and both leagues clashed with the Macedonian kings (and later with Rome) in struggles for power. Unlike the united front of 480 BC or the Macedonian-led league of Philip and Alexander, the Hellenistic leagues were parallel regional alliances – a testament to Greek resilience in self-organization, but also a sign that Greece remained politically fragmented. Even so, the endurance of these federations into the 2nd century BC demonstrated a continuity of the Panhellenic idea: the notion that Greeks were one people and should band together for common causes did not die. Members of the Achaean League, for example, saw themselves not just as citizens of their city but also as collectively “Achaeans,” and even used the league to negotiate as a single entity with foreign powers, much as a Panhellenic union might. In 146 BC, the Achaean League made a final, doomed stand against Rome in the Achaean War, a last echo of unified Greek resistance; its defeat and the sack of Corinth symbolically marked the end of Greek political independence. Yet even under Roman rule, the cultural concept of Panhellenism persisted – centuries later, the Roman Emperor Hadrian would establish a “Panhellenion” league of cities to hark back to the classical ideal of a unified Greece.

Conclusion

From the Persian Wars through the Hellenistic age, the Panhellenic ideal evolved in response to the needs of the time. Initially an ad hoc alliance for survival, it became an aspirational ideology used by leaders like Philip II and Alexander to legitimize conquest and empire-building as a form of collective Greek enterprise. Shared elements of culture and religion – common gods, sanctuaries, oracles, athletic games, heroic legends, and the age-old dichotomy of “Greek vs. barbarian” – were the glue that held this ideal together. These factors provided a sense of brotherhood among Greeks, even when political reality fell short of complete unity. Alexander the Great deftly leveraged Panhellenic traditions, from dedicating temples and treasures to Greek gods to guaranteeing the freedoms of Greek cities, thereby casting himself as the culmination of the Panhellenic dream of unity and revenge against Persia. The Priene Inscription is a tangible testament to how Alexander melded piety and policy to appeal to Greek sentiment – dedicating a temple to Athena and at the same time affirming his role as protector of Greek liberties.

The later federations of the Aetolians and Achaeans carried the torch of Greek unity in altered form, preserving the notion that Greeks could and should govern themselves cooperatively. While they never united all of Hellas, these leagues maintained cultural continuity with the Panhellenic ideal through federal institutions and the defense of common interests (such as safeguarding Delphi or resisting tyranny). In sum, the Panhellenic League was not a single continuous entity but rather a recurring vision – one that manifested in different guises from the stand at Thermopylae to the halls of Corinth, from Alexander’s edicts to the councils of the Achaean League. This vision of Greek unity grounded in shared heritage proved powerful and enduring, leaving a legacy that would inspire leaders and writers for generations and become an integral part of how the Greeks remembered their collective past.

References

1. Warfare History Network – Defending the Pass at the Battle of Thermopylae.

2. Sheldon, Natasha. The Temenos of Apollo, Delphi. History & Archaeology Online (2021).

3. Thomas R. Martin – An Overview of Classical Greek History from Mycenae to Alexander, Ch. 15, Sec. 19: “Isocrates on Panhellenism.”

4. Alexander’s Triumph at Granicus, Warfare History Network.

The Priene Inscription: Alexander the Great’s Temple Dedication and Panhellenic Diplomacy

The Priene Inscription stands as one of the most revealing and evocative artifacts from the early years of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the East. Carved on marble and discovered in the Ionian city of Priene (modern-day western Turkey), the brief yet powerful dedication reads: “King Alexander dedicated the temple to Athena Polias.” This deceptively simple line encapsulates a strategic act of religious patronage, a signal of cultural legitimacy, and a statement of Panhellenic diplomacy. More than a mere building inscription, it reflects Alexander’s broader efforts to present himself not simply as a conqueror, but as the lawful leader and unifier of the Greek world.

Historical Context: After the Granicus

Dated to around 334–330 BC, the inscription comes from the early phase of Alexander’s campaign against the Persian Empire. Shortly after crossing the Hellespont into Asia Minor, Alexander won a decisive victory at the Battle of the Granicus River, defeating a coalition of Persian satraps. In doing so, he liberated several Greek cities in Asia that had been under Persian dominion for over a century.

Among these cities was Priene, a Hellenized polis in Ionia with strong civic traditions and deep cultural roots. Like other Ionian cities, it had maintained Greek identity despite Persian control, often preserving local autonomy under the oversight of satraps. As Alexander swept through the region, he sought not only to assert military dominance but also to legitimize his authority through acts of restoration and cultural alignment. His decision to dedicate a major temple in Priene to Athena Polias – the city’s protector goddess – should be read within this context of symbolic liberation and Panhellenic outreach.

The Temple of Athena Polias and Alexander’s Role

The temple itself was an ambitious project that had begun prior to Alexander’s arrival but was unfinished at the time. Athena Polias (“Athena of the City”) was more than a patron deity—she was a personification of civic identity, order, and defense. By completing and dedicating her temple, Alexander positioned himself as a restorer of Greek civic religion and as a benefactor deeply respectful of traditional values.

Financing the construction of the temple was a concrete demonstration of royal generosity and religious piety. It followed a long-standing Greek tradition in which rulers enhanced their prestige and cemented alliances by sponsoring sacred buildings. In this case, however, the patron was not a local tyrant or oligarch, but a pan-Hellenic figure who claimed to act on behalf of all Greeks. The temple thus became an instrument of imperial diplomacy: a gift to a liberated Greek city, affirming Alexander’s role as protector and champion of Hellenic religion.

The simplicity of the inscription—“King Alexander dedicated the temple to Athena Polias”—is also notable. It deliberately avoids any imperial Persian title and uses the Greek royal titulature, signaling his status as a Hellenic king rather than a foreign autocrat. This decision contrasts with later titles he adopted in Egypt (e.g., Pharaoh) or in Persia (e.g., King of Kings), highlighting how his policies in Greek cities were tailored to their cultural and political expectations.

Panhellenic Messaging and the Politics of Religion

Alexander’s temple dedication at Priene was part of a wider campaign of cultural diplomacy. Throughout his journey across Asia Minor, he emphasized liberation rather than conquest. He frequently proclaimed the freedom of the Greek cities—a politically resonant phrase evoking the autonomy and self-governance that many poleis had lost under Persian rule. These proclamations were reinforced by visible, religiously charged acts like temple construction and sacred dedications.

Such gestures appealed not only to civic pride but also to shared Greek values and memory. Athena was a Panhellenic deity par excellence: venerated from Athens to Ionia and closely associated with wisdom, strategy, and urban life. By invoking her patronage, Alexander reinforced his connection to the Panhellenic tradition of heroic warfare and religious duty. This act echoed previous dedications, such as the 300 Persian armors he sent to the Acropolis of Athens after Granicus, inscribed in the name of “Alexander and the Greeks (except the Lacedaemonians).” In each case, his message was the same: he was leading a war of revenge and liberation on behalf of all Greeks.

Furthermore, dedicating temples also served a practical political purpose. It helped solidify loyalty among the newly liberated cities, ensured the cooperation of local elites, and mitigated resistance. Religious benefaction made Alexander appear not as an occupier, but as a restorer of divine order and protector of the sacred.

The Priene Inscription and the Panhellenic Ideal

The importance of the Priene Inscription lies not only in its immediate context but in its broader ideological implications. It represents a fusion of conquest and consensus, where religious patronage becomes a tool for legitimizing imperial authority within a Panhellenic framework. Unlike the brutal subjugations that often followed conquest in antiquity, Alexander’s approach (at least in the Greek cities of Asia Minor) emphasized continuity, reverence, and shared cultural values.

This policy was deeply informed by his father Philip II’s legacy and the rhetoric of thinkers like Isocrates, who had long called for a united Greek campaign against Persia under a single hegemon. The Priene temple dedication offered tangible proof that Alexander had taken up this mantle—not merely militarily, but also spiritually and civically. It also reveals how he skillfully balanced local identities with imperial ambition: in Priene, he was not a foreign despot but a Greek king honoring the polis’s guardian goddess.

Moreover, the inscription’s very preservation provides insight into how Alexander’s legacy was curated and remembered. While his empire would fragment after his death, the memory of acts like this – recorded in stone and tied to civic institutions – helped sustain his image as a unifier, not merely a conqueror.

Conclusion

The Priene Inscription may consist of only a few words, but it conveys a wealth of historical meaning. It testifies to Alexander’s awareness of the importance of religious tradition, his deliberate cultivation of Greek identity, and his strategic use of cultural symbols to reinforce political authority. In dedicating the temple to Athena Polias, Alexander was not only finishing a building; he was also erecting a monument to Panhellenic diplomacy, civic renewal, and ideological legitimacy.

As such, the inscription remains a vital key to understanding how Alexander crafted his public image and how he navigated the delicate balance between Macedonian monarchy and Hellenic political traditions. It captures, in marble and in spirit, the subtle art of empire-building in the ancient world.

Heroes and Bones: How Ancient Greeks Interpreted Fossils and Created Myths

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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From the foothills of Pindus to the coasts of Asia Minor, ancient Greeks often encountered peculiar findings in the ground: enormous bones, dentitions, and skulls. These remnants, which we now recognize as fossils of prehistoric animals, inspired some of the most enduring myths of the Greco-Roman world. But how did the ancients interpret these findings? What role did they play in their political, religious, and cultural life?​

Researcher Adrienne Mayor, in her seminal work The First Fossil Hunters: Paleontology in Greek and Roman Times, explores this very question, connecting ancient texts, mythological traditions, and geological evidence to argue that the ancients were, in essence, the first paleontologists.​

Pausanias and the Bones of Heroes

One of the primary chroniclers of such findings is Pausanias, a 2nd-century AD traveler whose work Description of Greece offers invaluable insights into the religious and mythical landscapes of antiquity. In numerous accounts, Pausanias mentions discoveries of "gigantic bones," attributed to heroes like Orestes and Theseus or even mythical creatures like giants and cyclopes.​

For instance, when describing Tegea, Pausanias notes that the Spartans exhumed massive bones they identified as Orestes', following an oracle from Delphi. Upon returning to their homeland, they used these remains as religious and political symbols of victory over the Arcadians.​

The Transportation and Politicization of "Relics"

The act of transporting heroic bones wasn't merely an honor to ancestors; it carried political intent and ideological weight. The relocation of Theseus' bones from Skyros to Athens by Cimon in 475 BC bolstered Athens' political unity and democratic resurgence under Pericles.​

map by Michele Mayor Angel, Mayor 2000: 114, Mar 3.1

Adrienne Mayor highlights the use of these findings to "legitimize" a city's dominance or to fortify collective identity. They served as evidence of genealogical ties to the heroic age, justifying political ambitions or military interventions.​

Herodotus and the Tradition of "Tribal" Memory

While Herodotus doesn't frequently mention specific bones, his Histories incorporate numerous local narratives that seem to stem from natural discoveries. Descriptions of "monstrous" beings, such as the griffins in Scythia, might have originated from fossils of prehistoric mammals unearthed by gold miners in those regions.​

How Did the Ancients Explain Fossils? Explaining the Bones: Myth as Natural History

For ancient Greeks, there was no clear distinction between science, mythology, and theology. Observing a massive femur could reasonably lead to the belief that it belonged to a Giant or Titan. Legends of the Gigantomachy or Titanomachy might be mythological "memories" of a prehistoric world dominated by colossal beings.​

The Trojan Monster as it is depicted on an ancient Greek vase, housed at the Mu seum of Boston

In areas like Lesbos and Samos, locals believed fossils were remnants of wars between gods and heroes. On Chios, a fossil was attributed to Ajax the Telamonian, while in the Aegean islands, "the shoulders of giants" were often depicted in public rituals or housed in temples.​

Adrienne Mayor and the Modern Reinterpretation of Myths

Mayor's significant contribution lies in crediting the ancients with observational skills and rationality. In her book, she presents numerous examples where Greeks not only interpreted these bones but also integrated them into a natural history of the world. She attributes to them an early form of scientific thinking: recognizing that the world was once inhabited by different species.​

Mayor compares ancient findings with modern paleontological analyses, noting that many regions mentioned in texts, like Tegea and Skyros, indeed contain fossils of large mammals from the Pleistocene. The bones considered to be Orestes' might have been remnants of mammoths or other megafauna.​

The Trojan monster could correspond to the skull of Samotherium. The picture of the vase is taken from Mayor (2000) and the drawing of Samotherium from Lydekker(1883).

From Myth to Natural Interpretation: The End of "Fantasy"?

Modern archaeology and paleontology, aided by geology, validate the ancients' intuition to some extent. Rather than being naive or pre-scientific, ancient Greeks emerge as observers of the natural world with creative thinking. The connection between natural findings and mythological tradition was their way of understanding and interpreting the inaccessible past.​

Fossils in ancient Greece weren't merely "lifeless remnants"—they were carriers of stories, foundations of myths, evidence of divine presence, and tools of political dominance. Adrienne Mayor's work is invaluable, allowing us to view the ancients not only as myth-makers but also as proto-scientists striving to decipher the Earth's signs, much like we endeavor to interpret their writings.​

This dialogue between the natural world and cultural memory is perhaps the most authentic form of "paleontology": not just about what happened, but about how people interpreted it.

The Painted Wooden Plaques of Pitsa: A Rare Testimony of Archaic Greek Art and Script

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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In 1934, in a cave above the modern village of Pitsa, near ancient Sicyon in Corinthia, an exceptionally important discovery for the history of Greek art and writing was made: four painted wooden plaques, the best preserved of which is now displayed at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens (No. 16464). [1] These plaques are the only surviving examples of large-scale Corinthian painting and are rich in linguistic and cultural data.

Religious Function and Iconography

The main plaque depicts a religious procession to an altar where a lamb is about to be sacrificed. The scene includes musical instruments: aulos and lyre, both integral elements of ritual experience. The presence of female figures leading the procession and a characteristic libation at the altar link the scene to dedications to the Charites (Graces), and the text mentions dedicator names such as Euthydika, Eukolis, and Etheloncha. [2]

These plaques were votive offerings to the Nymphs, local fertility deities worshiped within the cave. Although modest in size (31 cm long, 14.5 cm max height), the works are valuable for understanding Corinthian worship, folk religious art, and the techniques of the time.

Xerographic Technique and Colors

The plaques were painted using the xerographic method: mineral pigments applied to wood without the use of shading or gradation. The outlines of the figures are done in black or red, while the colors (white, red, blue, yellow, violet, brown, green, and black) are applied in pure tones, unmixed and unshaded. [3] Though simple, this technique allows for clear imagery and legible inscriptions.

Inscriptions and Names: Placement and Reading

The inscriptions are written in the upper section of the plaque, above the heads of the figures. They are arranged in zones and sometimes extend to the side of the plaque. Notably mentioned are:

• Euthydika (ΕΥΘΥΔΙΚΑ Μ’)

• Eukolis (ΕΥΚΟΛΙΣ)

• Etheloncha (ΕΘΕΛΟΝΧΑ or variation)

The phrase "m' anetheken" (has dedicated me) is implied in the dedication. On the side of the plaque, the word KORINTHIOS (Corinthian) is preserved, likely indicating the origin of either the painter or the dedicator.

In another plaque, analysis through infrared reflection revealed inscriptions with the names of seven of the nine female figures: Telesoi, Leukippa, Kalyopsoi, and fragments of Hag[..], Thae[..], Kali[..], and [- - -]okratia. The name Teleso is the earliest known epigraphic instance, and Leukippa and Kalypso are identified with Oceanid nymphs, which supports the hypothesis that these figures represent nymphs performing a ritual dance before an enthroned goddess. [4] [5]

Local Variants of the Greek Alphabet and the Challenge of Reading

In Archaic Greece, a unified Greek alphabet did not exist. Instead, each region had its own local system. Corinth belonged to the "eastern" group of alphabets but had many unique characteristics:

• Use of the letter Qoppa (Ϙ) instead of Kappa (Κ) when the syllable involved back vowels like "O." [6]

• Use of the letter San (Ϻ) instead of Sigma (Σ) for the /s/ sound. [7]

• Theta (Θ) is graphically rendered as ⊕, possibly to distinguish it from similar symbols.

• A unique marking system for the vowel sounds /e/ and /ɛː/, using a B-shaped letter for both and E exclusively for the closed /eː/. Sicyon used its own variations of this system, while neighboring Tiryns had an even more complex one. [8]

Additionally, the letter Eta (Η) did not denote /ɛː/ as in the Ionic system but retained the meaning of /h/ or /eː/, depending on the region.

The Letter Koppa/Qoppa and Its Evolution

The letter Ϙ (Qoppa or Koppa) is among the most ancient in the Greek alphabet. In Corinth, it was extensively used to represent /k/ before back vowels. Although it was gradually abandoned by other regions in the 6th century BC, Corinth retained it for orthographic clarity. [9]

Later, the western Euboean variant of the Greek alphabet transmitted Qoppa to the Etruscans and from them to the Latin script. This gave rise to the letter Q in the Latin alphabet, which persists in English today.

Corinthian Script: A Unique Tradition

The Corinthian script was marked by a distinctive aesthetic and linguistic autonomy:

• The letter I was written is similar to Sigma (e.g., Σ, Ϲ, Ξ).

• The letter B had a unique form, distinct from the classical style.

• The writing was often boustrophedon or right-to-left, as writing direction was not yet standardized.

The inscriptions on the Pitsa plaques exemplify this uniqueness and pose challenges to modern scholars, as reading them requires familiarity with regional variations.

Conclusions

The Pitsa plaques are not only rare examples of painted art but also invaluable resources for the study of Archaic Greek writing, dialectical variation, and religious practices. The dedication to local deities, the musical accompaniment, the sacrificial scene, and the local script together depict a society where religion, language, and art coexisted harmoniously.

Furthermore, the discovery provides material for tracing the development of Greek scripts toward the standardized alphabet adopted in Athens in 403 BC and ultimately the transmission of characters such as Qoppa to Latin and modern European languages.

The plaques of Pitsa are not mere relics of antiquity—they are vivid documents of a world that was colorful, diverse, and richly expressive in word, image, and worship.

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References

[1] National Archaeological Museum of Athens, Catalogue No. 16464.
[2] Jeffery, L.H., The Local Scripts of Archaic Greece. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961.
[3] Boardman, John. Greek Art. London: Thames & Hudson, 1996.
[4] Infrared analysis in recent epigraphic editions; cf. Masson, BCH 99 (1975), and SEG IX.
[5] Delattre, Marie-Christine. The Painted Wooden Tablets from Pitsa: Religious Painting in Archaic Greece. Technè 33 (2011).
[6] Woodard, Roger D. Greek Writing from Knossos to Homer. Oxford University Press, 1997.
[7] Guarducci, Margherita. Epigrafia Greca. Vol. 1–4. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, 1967–1978.
[8] Powell, Barry B. Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet. Cambridge University Press, 1991.
[9] Jeffery, op. cit., pp. 120–123.

The Optical Illusions that Make Parthenon Straight to Human Eye

The Parthenon, an enduring symbol of ancient Greek architecture, captivates observers with its apparent perfection and harmonious proportions. This visual mastery results from deliberate architectural refinements—subtle deviations from geometric norms—implemented by its creators to counteract optical distortions and enhance aesthetic appeal.

Curved Stylobate

A notable refinement is the curvature of the stylobate, the temple's base platform. Instead of being flat, the stylobate arches upward slightly, with a rise of approximately 2.6 inches at the center of the end facades and about 4.3 inches along the sides. This subtle convexity corrects the optical illusion that would make a perfectly flat surface appear to sag when viewed from a distance, ensuring the temple's base appears straight and stable.

Entasis of Columns

The columns of the Parthenon exhibit entasis—a slight swelling at their midpoint. This design counters the visual effect that would make uniformly straight columns appear concave. By incorporating entasis, the columns maintain an appearance of straightness and structural integrity, contributing to the overall visual harmony of the temple.

Inward-Leaning Columns

Further enhancing the temple's visual coherence, all columns lean slightly inward. If extended upward, they would converge approximately 1.5 miles above the structure. This inward inclination corrects the optical illusion that would make perfectly vertical columns appear to bow outward, thereby reinforcing the perception of structural soundness.

Corner Column Adjustments

The corner columns are marginally thicker and set closer to adjacent columns. This adjustment addresses the visual phenomenon where corner elements, silhouetted against the sky, can appear thinner than they are. By making these columns slightly more robust, the architects ensured a consistent visual weight across the colonnade.

Curved Entablature

The entablature—the horizontal structure supported by the columns—also features a subtle upward curvature, mirroring the stylobate's design. This curvature maintains the visual consistency of the temple's lines, preventing any perception of sagging in the horizontal elements and contributing to the overall aesthetic balance.

These meticulous refinements demonstrate the ancient Greek architects' profound understanding of human visual perception and their commitment to creating structures that transcend mere functionality. By integrating these optical corrections, the Parthenon achieves an enduring visual harmony, embodying the Greeks' pursuit of architectural excellence and their dedication to crafting spaces that resonate with both beauty and precision.

Academy: The Birth of Plato's School and the History Behind Its Name

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Plato's Academy, founded in 387 BC, is undoubtedly one of the most significant landmarks in the history of philosophy and education. The story of this school, however, is directly tied to its location and the legend of the hero Academus, after whom it was named.

The Legend of Academus

The area where Plato founded his Academy was known since ancient times as a place of worship and devotion to the mythical hero Academus. Academus was a hero of Athenian mythology, associated with an important event in the city's history. According to legend, when King Theseus abducted Helen of Sparta, her brothers, the Dioscuri, besieged Athens to free her. It was Academus who revealed to the Dioscuri that Helen had been hidden in the region of Attica, thus preventing the potential destruction of the city. For this act, he was honored by the Athenians, and the area where he lived took his name.

The land surrounding the gymnasium that later became the Academy was already dedicated to Academus, containing temples and olive groves, linking natural beauty with intellectual and academic development. Thus, the name of Plato's Academy is a reference to this ancient hero, blending tradition with the new intellectual movement initiated by Plato.

The Founding of the Academy by Plato

Plato, deeply influenced by his experience with Socrates and his philosophical pursuits, sought a space where he could establish a school of philosophy. In his vision of education and the quest for truth, he found the ideal spot in the gymnasium of Academus, an area located just outside the walls of Athens. In this space, Plato created a garden of philosophical inquiry, which soon developed into one of the most important schools in ancient Greek, and later, world history.

Plato's Academy was not a simple school of learning. It aimed at cultivating the soul, morality, and reason. Plato, as a teacher, did not merely give lectures. Instead, he encouraged discussion, dialectic, and the search for truth through questioning and reflection. This method led to the development of philosophy as a living, creative process rather than merely the memorization of knowledge.

Athens Plato Academy Archaeological Site, Author Tomisti

The Importance of the Academy

Plato's Academy laid the foundation for the development of many fields of knowledge. At the Academy, students did not only engage with philosophy but also with mathematics, physics, politics, and rhetoric. Among Plato's most famous students was Aristotle, who himself made significant contributions to philosophy and science.

The influence of Plato's Academy extends to the present day. The word "academy" is used globally to describe higher educational and research institutions, and the term "academic" is associated with learning, knowledge, and intellectual pursuit.

Plato's Academy was not just a school of philosophy. It was a symbol of the eternal quest for truth and wisdom, embedded in a place already associated with an ancient hero, Academus. Through his work, Plato gave new life to this area and created a space that would forever define the way we understand knowledge and philosophical inquiry.

What Was the Real Hair Color of Alexander the Great?

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The depiction of Alexander the Great has sparked much debate regarding his physical appearance, especially concerning the color of his hair. The three depictions we share in this article, along with others from European artistic traditions, add complexity to this discussion. Let us examine the matter in detail, drawing upon both ancient sources and later representations.

Depictions of Alexander

Fresco from the Tomb of Philip II in Vergina: The first image, as you mentioned, is believed to depict Alexander, and it is particularly important as it comes from his lifetime. In this depiction, Alexander’s hair appears brown, with a natural shade that does not suggest a blond color. This representation is significant as it was created by an artist who lived in the Macedonian court, offering a likely accurate portrayal of his appearance.

The Alexander Mosaic (House of the Faun, Pompeii): This mosaic depicts Alexander during the battle with Darius III and was created several centuries after his death. Although the hair color is somewhat difficult to interpret due to the mosaic technique, it seems that his hair is brown, further supporting the idea that Alexander was not blond but rather had brown hair with perhaps some lighter tones.

Wall Painting from Triclinium 20: The third image, which presents Alexander during his wedding to Roxane, was created during the Neronian period (54-68 AD), centuries after Alexander’s death. Here, too, Alexander’s depiction with brown hair aligns with other ancient sources.

Ancient Sources on Alexander’s Hair

Ancient written sources do not provide a clear description of Alexander’s hair color, but there are some clues. Plutarch, for instance, mentions that Alexander’s hair had a slightly reddish tone ("xanthochrous"), which could be interpreted as a form of light brown or golden rather than pure blonde.

Later European Representations

Later depictions of Alexander during the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Enlightenment often portray him with blond hair. This likely stems from cultural reasons and ideological projections. In Western art, blond characters were often symbols of heroism, enlightenment, and virtue. Thus, blondness became associated with the idealized figure of Alexander, particularly during the Renaissance, when artists drew inspiration from the ancient Greek classical tradition but filtered it through their own artistic and political ideas.

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The question of Alexander the Great’s hair color remains open to interpretation. However, ancient sources and depictions from the Hellenistic and Roman periods tend to show him with brown hair, while later European artists, influenced by their own ideological views, often portrayed him as blond. Examining these varied depictions offers an interesting perspective on how the historical image of Alexander changes according to the cultural and political context of each era.

The Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome and Its Influence from the Tomb of Alexander the Great in Alexandria, Egypt

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Mausoleum of Augustus, also known as Mausoleum Augusti, is one of the most significant architectural monuments of ancient Rome, symbolizing the supremacy and immortality of the first Roman Emperor. However, few people know that this mausoleum, designed and constructed during Augustus’ reign, was largely inspired by the tomb of another great leader—Alexander the Great in Alexandria, Egypt. The architecture and symbolic significance of Augustus’ Mausoleum can be better understood through the study of Alexander’s tomb, possibly providing clues to its exact location and structure.

The Historical Significance of the Mausoleum of Augustus

The Mausoleum of Augustus, whose construction began in 28 BCE, is located in the Campus Martius of Rome. It was one of the first major public works initiated by Augustus shortly after the establishment of the Pax Romana. With a diameter of approximately 87 meters and a height exceeding 40 meters, the mausoleum was a circular tomb, covered with earth and trees on top, exuding a sense of eternity and peace. At its core, the Mausoleum housed a central chamber that contained the ashes of Augustus and other members of the Julio-Claudian family.

The construction of the mausoleum was not merely a work of architectural grandeur but also a political statement. By erecting such an imposing funerary monument at the heart of Rome, Augustus sought to ensure his eternal memory and declare that the power of his family would last forever. This symbolism bears a strong resemblance to the grand funerary practices that had developed in the East, with Alexander the Great’s tomb being one of the most impressive examples.

The Tomb of Alexander the Great: Architecture and Symbolism

The tomb of Alexander the Great in Alexandria was one of the wonders of the ancient world. Although the exact form and location of the tomb have been lost over the centuries, ancient sources give us some clues about its magnificence and influence. According to these sources, Alexander’s tomb was housed in an elaborate mausoleum, possibly inspired by the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, and was located in the center of Alexandria, serving as a pilgrimage site for centuries.

Tomb of Alexander the Great in Assassin's Creed: Origins

Alexander’s tomb was more than just a burial place; it was a symbol of his deification. After his death, Alexander was worshiped as a god, and his tomb served as a shrine. This symbolism of eternity and deification deeply influenced Augustus, who, recognizing the power and allure of such a tomb, sought to adopt and reinforce these symbols in his own mausoleum.

Architectural Influences and Common Elements

Although the details of Alexander’s tomb remain unclear, there are indications that Augustus drew inspiration from it. The circular shape of Augustus' Mausoleum resembles the circular tombs popular in the East, like the probable shape of Alexander’s tomb. The choice of location, in a central spot in Rome, and the use of luxurious materials and decoration reveal Augustus’ effort to create a tomb worthy of the great leaders of history.

Reconstruction Sketch of Mausoleum Augustus

Additionally, Augustus’ references to Alexander in various texts and his attempts to present himself as a new Alexander suggest that he wanted to be associated with the image of the great Macedonian conqueror. The mausoleum, as a monument not only of burial but also of worship, echoes the cult that had developed around Alexander’s tomb.

Can We Draw Information to Help Locate Alexander’s Tomb?

The study of Augustus’ Mausoleum may offer interesting insights into the identification and reconstruction of the image of Alexander the Great’s tomb. The influence of Alexander’s tomb on Augustus’ mausoleum suggests that the former was located in a central area and was a place of worship, making its possible location in the heart of Alexandria, near the famed Soma of Alexander.

However, archaeological investigations in Alexandria have proven to be extremely challenging due to modern urban development. Nevertheless, comparisons with Augustus’ Mausoleum, such as its shape, location, and use of materials, might help archaeologists search for similar features in the landscape of Alexandria. One possible approach would be to look for signs of large circular monuments or underground chambers that could be linked to the tomb.

The connection between the Mausoleum of Augustus and the lost tomb of Alexander the Great is reinforced by both ancient literary sources and archaeological analysis, allowing modern historians to draw significant parallels between the two structures. Suetonius, Dio Cassius, and Strabo highlight Augustus’ admiration for Alexander, particularly his visit to the Macedonian king’s tomb in Alexandria, where he reportedly touched the body and expressed a desire to emulate his legacy. Strabo’s description of Alexander’s tomb as a grand circular monument finds a striking parallel in the architectural design of Augustus’ Mausoleum, suggesting a conscious attempt to mirror the grandeur of Hellenistic royal burials.

Paul Zanker, in The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, explores how Augustus strategically adopted Hellenistic imagery to shape his divine and imperial persona, modeling his rule on figures like Alexander. The Res Gestae Divi Augusti, while not explicitly referencing Alexander, underscores Augustus’ efforts to create an enduring monument that would solidify his divine status, much like Hellenistic rulers who established cults around their tombs. The central placement of Augustus’ Mausoleum in Rome further reflects the prominent location of Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria, reinforcing the notion that Augustus sought to integrate elements of Hellenistic kingship into his own imperial image. While no ancient source directly states that Augustus copied Alexander’s tomb, the architectural similarities, historical context, and Augustus’ known admiration for Hellenistic ideals strongly suggest that the Mausoleum was influenced by the legendary conqueror’s burial, serving as a powerful testament to Alexander’s enduring impact on Roman leadership and self-representation.

The Ara Pacis and its Greek Roots: How the Pergamon Altar Shaped the Altar of Peace of Divine Augustus

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Altar of Peace of Divine Augustus (Ara Pacis Divi Augusti) stands as one of the most significant architectural and artistic works of the Roman Empire. It was constructed to honor the peace established by Augustus following his military campaigns in Spain and Gaul, and it serves as a manifestation of his policy promoting the Pax Romana. Although the work is distinctly Roman, its architecture and decorative elements show substantial influence from the Greek world, especially from the Pergamon Altar. In this article, we will examine the history, architecture, and artistic influences of the Ara Pacis, with particular emphasis on how it was inspired by the Temple of Pergamon.

Historical Context and Construction of the Altar

The Altar of Peace was inaugurated on January 30, 9 B.C., commemorating Augustus' return to Rome after his successful campaigns. Its construction was decreed by the Senate in 13 B.C. and was situated in the Campus Martius, an area associated with Rome’s military history and honors bestowed upon great military leaders.

The altar consists of an enclosure and an inner altar, with the enclosure decorated with relief scenes depicting the procession of the imperial family and deities associated with peace. This monument is not just a religious structure but also a political statement of Augustus' success and the new era of peace and prosperity he brought to the empire.

Architectural and Artistic Elements

The Ara Pacis is a masterpiece of Roman architecture and sculpture, blending political propaganda with religious devotion. The outer enclosure is adorned with reliefs that glorify peace, prosperity, and the moral renewal of Rome. These depictions include mythological scenes, such as the founding of Rome and the miracle of peace under Augustus' reign, along with processions portraying members of Augustus' family, priests, and other prominent figures of the time.

The reliefs on the Ara Pacis are characterized by striking realism and naturalism, traits that evolved in Hellenistic art and were transferred to Rome. This influence is evident in the portrayal of figures, the intensity of expressions, and the detailed representation of clothing and faces.

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Asclepius to Esculapio: The Integration of the Cult of Asclepius in Roman Healing and Religion

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The Influence of the Temple of Pergamon

One of the most significant aspects of the Ara Pacis is the influence it received from the Temple of Pergamon, particularly from the Altar of Zeus and Athena built in the 2nd century B.C. in Pergamon. The Pergamon Altar, famous for its "Gigantomachy" frieze, was one of the greatest architectural and artistic achievements of the Hellenistic period, and it had a profound impact on Roman architecture and art.

This influence is evident in both the structure and decoration of the Ara Pacis. In the Temple of Pergamon, the altar was surrounded by reliefs depicting the battle between the gods and the giants, a theme symbolizing the triumph of order and civilization over chaos and barbarism. This concept was transferred to the Ara Pacis, where the reliefs portray the peace and prosperity that result from Augustus' victory and the establishment of order in Rome.

Additionally, the structure of the Ara Pacis, with its enclosure surrounding the altar, echoes the architectural layout of the Temple of Pergamon. The symbolism of a perimeter enclosing a sacred space and the inner unity it represents are characteristics drawn from Greek models, adapted to the Roman context to serve Augustus' political and religious agenda.

The Altar of Peace of Divine Augustus is not only a religious monument but also a symbol of Augustus' power and political success. Through the study of the Ara Pacis, we can see how Rome adopted and adapted the finest elements of Greek art, blending them with its own traditions and needs. The influence of the Temple of Pergamon is clear, and the result is a monument that embodies the values of the Pax Romana while also demonstrating the continuous cultural interaction between Rome and the Hellenistic world.

The Scholarly Connection Between the Ara Pacis and the Pergamon Altar

There is no ancient literary source that explicitly records a direct connection between the Ara Pacis Augustae and the Altar of Zeus at Pergamon. However, the association between the two is based on archaeological, artistic, and historical analyses conducted by modern scholars.

Ancient sources that describe the Ara Pacis include Ovid in Fasti (1.709-722), who mentions the construction of the altar and its symbolic significance. Pliny the Elder in Natural History (36.19-36.28) references sculptural works from the Augustan period, while Cassius Dio in Roman History (53.22, 54.25) discusses the political meaning of the altar and its connection to Augustus' establishment of peace.

For the Pergamon Altar, the most notable ancient reference comes from Lucian in Against the Ignorant Book Collector (7-8), where he describes the grandeur of Pergamene constructions.

The connection between the Ara Pacis and the Pergamon Altar has been established through modern scholarly research, which highlights how the Ara Pacis borrows both artistic and ideological elements from the Pergamon Altar, especially in its relief decorations. The Pergamon Altar significantly influenced Roman sculpture and decorative art, particularly through its use of high-relief narrative sculpture, a technique that is evident in the Ara Pacis as well.

For a deeper analysis of this influence, the works of Paul Zanker in The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (1988) and Tonio Hölscher in The Language of Images in Roman Art (2004) are highly recommended. These studies explore how Augustus utilized Hellenistic art to legitimize his rule and craft a new visual narrative for Rome, reinforcing his political and ideological agenda.

The Derveni Krater: A Masterpiece of Ancient Metalwork and Symbolism

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Discovered in 1965 near Thessaloniki, Greece, the Derveni Krater stands as one of the finest examples of ancient metalwork from the Hellenistic period. More than just a vessel, this bronze masterpiece embodies the intersection of art, religion, and funeral customs in ancient Greece. Its rich and intricate decoration, featuring the god Dionysus and his mythological retinue, reveals not only the advanced craftsmanship of its time but also the profound symbolic meanings attached to the afterlife. Now housed in the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, the Derveni Krater continues to fascinate historians, archaeologists, and art enthusiasts alike. This article explores the krater’s history, craftsmanship, symbolic iconography, and its significance in the ancient Greek worldview.

The Discovery and History of the Derveni Krater

The Derveni Krater was uncovered in a tomb in the Derveni Necropolis area, near the modern city of Thessaloniki, during an archaeological excavation in 1965. Found in Grave 2, it was used as a funerary urn, holding the ashes of a deceased aristocrat. However, the krater was originally designed for a different purpose, likely for mixing wine and water during banquets. Dated to between 330 and 320 BC, it is a product of sophisticated Hellenistic craftsmanship. The exact origins of the krater’s production remain debated, with some scholars attributing it to Athenian artisans, while others suggest it may have been crafted within the Macedonian court or by a skilled metalworker from the Ionian cities of Chalkidiki.

Craftsmanship and Material Composition

At first glance, the Derveni Krater appears golden, but it is, in fact, made of bronze with a high tin content, giving it its lustrous shine. This illusion of gold highlights the advanced metallurgical techniques of the time, which enabled artisans to produce visually striking pieces without the use of precious metals. The krater was hammered out of two large sheets of bronze and intricately decorated with reliefs and figures cast separately and later attached to the vessel. Its construction, involving both hammering and casting, demonstrates the high level of technical skill that was characteristic of Hellenistic metalwork. The krater’s elaborate design includes volute handles, detailed reliefs on its shoulder, and finely sculpted base elements, all contributing to its grandeur.

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Photos by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Iconography of Dionysus and Ariadne

The most remarkable feature of the Derveni Krater is its elaborate decoration, which focuses on the god Dionysus and his sacred marriage to Ariadne. On the main side of the krater, Dionysus is depicted seated on a rock, naked, with one leg draped over Ariadne’s thigh. Ariadne gazes lovingly at him while holding her bridal veil, a gesture commonly associated with marriage. Behind Dionysus stands a panther, an animal sacred to the god, symbolizing his wild and untamed nature. Surrounding the couple are lively maenads and satyrs, followers of Dionysus, engaged in ecstatic dance and celebration. The scene represents not just a divine union but also the idea of a joyous afterlife, where the deceased would join the gods in eternal revelry. This symbolic depiction of the afterlife offers insight into ancient Greek beliefs about death and the soul's journey beyond.

Symbolism and Funerary Customs

The choice to depict Dionysus and Ariadne’s union on the krater was no accident. In ancient Greek belief, Dionysus, the god of wine, ecstasy, and rebirth, was closely associated with both life and death. His presence on funerary objects like the Derveni Krater suggests a belief in the cyclical nature of existence, where death is not the end but a transition to another state of being. In this case, the marriage of Dionysus and Ariadne may symbolize the deceased's passage into a blissful afterlife, eternally united with a divine partner. This theme was particularly comforting for those who died unmarried, as it offered a vision of happiness and fulfillment beyond death. The lively and sensual imagery surrounding the couple further reinforces this idea, promising a jubilant and eternal existence in the afterlife.

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Photos by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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nscription and Ownership

An inscription in silver letters on the lip of the krater reveals the name of its owner: Astiouneios, son of Anaxagoras, from Larissa. Although it is unclear whether Astiouneios was the individual whose ashes were placed in the vessel, the inscription provides a rare glimpse into the personal ownership of such exquisite artifacts. This raises interesting questions about the social status and wealth of the family, who would have commissioned or acquired such a luxurious item for funerary use. The krater’s detailed craftsmanship and symbolic richness suggest that it was intended not just as a practical object but as a statement of power, prestige, and spiritual belief.

The Legacy of the Derveni Krater

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Photos by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Today, the Derveni Krater remains one of the most important examples of Hellenistic metalwork and serves as a key artifact in understanding the religious and funerary practices of ancient Greece. Its combination of technical brilliance, artistic beauty, and deep symbolic meaning elevates it from a mere vessel to a cultural and spiritual treasure. Now displayed in the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, the krater continues to draw the attention of scholars and visitors alike, offering a tangible link to the ancient past and its enduring views on life, death, and the divine. Through the Derveni Krater, we gain insight into the complexities of ancient Greek thought, where art, religion, and the afterlife were intricately intertwined.

A Jewish Prophecy About Alexander the Great in the Book of Daniel?

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Macedonian King Foretold: Alexander the Great in Jewish Scripture?

The Jewish Book of Daniel, composed centuries before Alexander the Great, is believed by some to have prophesied his rise to power around 200 years before his birth. This prophecy foretold how Alexander would not only impact world history but also profoundly influence Judaism and its future.

In 336 BCE, at the age of 20, Alexander the Great succeeded his father, Philip II, as king of Macedonia, the Greek kingdom in northern Greece. Throughout his reign, Alexander embarked on an unprecedented military campaign that spanned much of Western Asia and Egypt, reshaping the known world. His conquests, especially in the regions of Persia and beyond, would forever change the Jewish relationship with the surrounding empires.

The Conqueror of Empires

In less than ten years, Alexander's military prowess had spread Hellenic culture to vast regions, including modern-day Turkey, Syria, Israel, Egypt, and much of the Arab world. By his early thirties, Alexander had reached the western borders of India, extending Greek influence as far as possible before his untimely death at the age of 33.

One of the key elements in Alexander's life that shaped his worldview was his education under Aristotle. The philosopher instilled in him a respect for different peoples, cultures, and religions, which became evident in his interactions with those he conquered, including the Jews.

Alexander’s Alleged Visit to Jerusalem

One of the most famous events linking Alexander the Great to the Jewish people is recorded by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus. Following his siege of Tyre, Alexander is said to have passed through Judea, likely between 329 and 332 BCE, during the time of the Jewish High Priest Jaddua. The Talmud, however, identifies the high priest as Shimon HaTzaddik (Simeon the Just), complicating the historical accuracy of Josephus’ account.

Although many historians, including Plutarch, did not mention this encounter, Josephus describes how the Jewish people submitted to Alexander without resistance. According to Jewish tradition, as recorded in the Talmud (Yoma 69a), when Alexander approached Jerusalem, Simeon the Just and the Sanhedrin (the Jewish high court) met him in full priestly regalia. Upon seeing the high priest, Alexander dismounted from his horse and bowed in reverence. This act astonished his courtiers, who questioned how their king could bow to a Jewish priest.

Alexander reportedly responded, saying:

"I did not adore him, but the God who hath honored him with this high-priesthood, for I saw this very person in a dream, in this very habit, when I was at Dios in Macedonia, who, when I was considering with myself how I might obtain dominion of Asia, exhorted me to make no delay, but boldly to pass over the sea."

This response highlights the significant role that dreams and divine visions played in Alexander's conquests. The Jews took advantage of this moment, informing Alexander of the Samaritans' deceitful attempts to mislead him into destroying the Jewish Temple. Moved by the Jewish leaders' plea, Alexander handed over the Samaritans to the Jewish authorities for punishment.

Following this dramatic encounter, Alexander was taken into the Temple, where he offered sacrifices to the Jewish God, according to Josephus. When Alexander requested that a statue of himself be placed in the Temple, the High Priest tactfully declined, offering instead that all male children born that year would be named Alexander—a gesture that led to the Jewish name "Sander" or "Sender" becoming common in Jewish communities.

Temple Of Solomon by William Hole

The Prophecies of Daniel

Alexander’s connection to Jewish prophecy lies in the Book of Daniel, where the prophet Daniel is said to have foretold the rise of a Greek king who would topple the Persian Empire. In Daniel’s vision, a ram with two horns, representing the kings of Media and Persia, is overthrown by a goat, symbolizing the king of Greece:

"[8:20] As for the ram that you saw with the two horns, these are the kings of Media and Persia. [8:21] And the goat is the king of Greece. And the great horn between his eyes is the first king."

The goat, widely believed to represent Alexander, defeats the ram, thus marking the dissolution of the Medo-Persian empire:

"[8:5] As I was considering, behold, a male goat came from the west across the face of the whole earth, without touching the ground. And the goat had a conspicuous horn between his eyes."

Further on, Daniel writes:

"[8:8] Then the goat became exceedingly great, but when he was strong, the great horn was broken, and instead of it there came up four conspicuous horns toward the four winds of heaven."

This prophecy is often interpreted as a prediction of Alexander's early death and the division of his empire into four smaller kingdoms, known as the Diadochi:

"[8:22] Four kingdoms will emerge from his nation but will not have the same power."

The 11th chapter of Daniel elaborates further, stating:

"[11:4] His [Alexander’s] empire will be broken up and parceled out toward the four winds of heaven. It will not go to his descendants, nor will it have the power he exercised."

These “prophetic” passages appear to describe the Macedonian king's conquest and the subsequent fragmentation of his empire.

The Historical Debate: Legend or Truth?

Daniel and the lions

Despite the dramatic nature of Josephus’ account, many scholars consider the story of Alexander’s visit to Jerusalem to be apocryphal. The Jewish Encyclopedia argues that this narrative is largely fictional, while modern scholars have debated the historical accuracy of Daniel’s prophecies. Some have suggested that the prophecies were written long after the events they predict, post-dating Alexander’s conquests, thus weakening the argument that Daniel foresaw Alexander’s rise.

Furthermore, while Hecataeus of Abdera, a contemporary of Alexander, may have written about the king's visit to Jerusalem, none of his writings on the matter have survived. This lack of corroboration raises doubts about the historical veracity of Josephus’ narrative.

The Book of Daniel and its Influence

The Book of Daniel remains a powerful apocalyptic work filled with visions, symbolism, and predictions about the rise and fall of empires. Its prophecies concerning Alexander’s conquest of Persia are among the most debated, with secular historians often rejecting its claims of divine inspiration. Scholars like John J. Collins argue that the Book of Daniel was composed during the Maccabean period, centuries after Alexander's death, and was meant to reflect the historical context of that time.

Despite these debates, the story of Alexander the Great and his connection to Jewish prophecy continues to captivate both religious and historical discourse. Whether or not Alexander truly visited Jerusalem or fulfilled ancient prophecies, his legacy as a world conqueror and a pivotal figure in Jewish history remains undeniable. His reign marked a turning point not just for the Jewish people but for the entire ancient world.

Exploring Macedonia's Past: We Visited the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki (Photo Album)

During the 88th Thessaloniki International Fair, our team from The Archaeologist Page had the privilege of visiting the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, a cornerstone of cultural preservation and an exceptional window into Macedonia's rich history. This visit, steeped in history and archaeology, allowed us to delve deep into the treasures of ancient Macedonia, an experience that any enthusiast of the ancient world should cherish.

A Modernist Monument of Culture

The Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, a state institution under the Ministry of Culture, has been a cultural beacon since 1962, housed in a building designed by renowned architect Patroklos Karantinos. The structure, celebrated as a listed monument of modern architectural heritage, stands as one of the finest examples of modernism in Greece. As you walk through its halls, the museum’s design seamlessly blends functionality with the aesthetics of a period that sought to redefine Greek architecture post-World War II. The building itself, as much as the treasures it holds, is a testament to a defining era in Greek architectural thought.

The museum underwent extensive renovations and reorganization in the years leading up to 2006, culminating in a reimagined layout that prioritizes the visitor experience. The redesign ensured that each exhibit could engage modern visitors while maintaining the integrity and significance of the artifacts. Today, the museum operates as a hub of cultural interaction, education, and archaeological research, welcoming visitors into the heart of ancient Macedonia.

Discovering Ancient Macedonia

The Museum’s permanent exhibitions are organized into eight distinct units, each offering a unique insight into the life, culture, and history of Macedonia from prehistoric times to late antiquity.

1. Prehistoric Macedonia presents an introduction to the ancient roots of the region, tracing life back to its earliest human settlements.

2. Towards the Birth of Cities explores the urbanization process in Macedonia, where small communities grew into vibrant cities over time.

3. Macedonia from the 7th century BC until Late Antiquity delves into the evolution of the Macedonian kingdom, the rise of its culture, and the integration of the region into the Roman Empire.

4. Thessaloniki, Metropolis of Macedonia, emphasizes the city's emergence as a powerful urban center in the Roman period, a metropolis that still serves as the cultural heartbeat of the region.

5. The Gold of Macedon is one of the most captivating sections, where visitors can marvel at gold artifacts uncovered in burial sites throughout Macedonia. These exquisite treasures, sourced from cemeteries in Sindos, Derveni, and Agia Paraskevi, highlight the wealth and artistry of ancient Macedonians. From gold diadems to intricately designed jewelry, this collection speaks volumes about the opulence and craftsmanship of the time.

6. Field, House, Garden, and Grave brings to life the everyday existence of ancient Macedonians, offering a glimpse into domestic life, agricultural practices, and burial customs. This section bridges the gap between the monumental achievements of ancient Macedonia and the daily lives of its people.

7. Memory in Stone showcases inscriptions, gravestones, and other monumental stone artifacts, commemorating individuals and moments from Macedonia's past.

8. Macedonia: From Fragments to Pixels reflects the museum’s commitment to using modern technology to bring history closer to the public, offering a digitalized experience of the ancient world, thereby blending the old with the new.

The Derveni crater, Tomb B, Late 4rtc. BC

Treasures from Thessaloniki and Beyond

The museum’s extensive collection is the result of years of excavations across Macedonia, beginning in 1912. It houses not only artifacts from these excavations but also items from private collections donated to the museum over the years. Some of the most notable exhibits include:

• The Derveni Krater, a bronze masterpiece used for mixing wine, discovered in the Derveni tombs, which stands as a symbol of luxury and the high craftsmanship of the Hellenistic period.

• The Bronze Helmet and Gold Mask from the cemetery of Sindos, a striking representation of warrior culture in ancient Macedonia.

• The Head of Serapis, a statue dating back to the 2nd century BC, blending Greek and Egyptian religious influences.

• The Derveni Papyrus is an invaluable ancient text and one of the oldest surviving papyrus manuscripts in Europe, offering a glimpse into ancient Greek philosophical and religious thought.

The Derveni Papyrus

The Derveni Papyrus (inv. no. A122) The exhibited fragments of the carbonized papyrus were placed in nine glass plates during the conservation work in 1962. Putting the 266 smaller and bigger fragments in the right order and studying the papyrus text was made possible with the use of special photographic techniques.

The Derveni Papyrus, the oldest European 'book', is the first Greek documentary heritage inscribed since October 2015 on the International Register of UNESCO's 'Memory of the World' Programme.

• The Gold of Macedon exhibit, perhaps the museum’s crown jewel, presents a dazzling array of gold jewelry, burial items, and coins, each piece telling the story of Macedonia’s royal lineage, wealth, and artistic achievements. The ancient gold artifacts, including Medusa-head pendants, diadems, and other exquisite jewelry, reflect the importance of gold in Macedonian society, not only as a symbol of wealth but also as a vital part of its burial customs and religious practices.

A Cultural Nexus in the Heart of Macedonia

Beyond its permanent exhibits, the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki also plays a pivotal role in fostering cultural and academic exchange. The Manolis Andronikos Room houses an important exhibition on the coins of Macedonia, dating from the 6th century to 148 BC, offering visitors an insight into the economy and trade practices of the ancient kingdom.

The museum regularly organizes themed workshops, seminars, and educational programs, aiming to promote cultural learning and appreciation. These programs invite people of all ages to engage with the rich history of the region, bridging the gap between academia and the general public. The museum is not only a place where history is preserved but also a space where it continues to be interpreted, discussed, and reimagined for future generations.

A Connection to the Past, a Vision for the Future

Head thought to be a portrait of Alexander

It may be associated with the cult complex of statues of Alexander’s family, 175-200 AD.

As we walked through the halls of the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, the past came alive through the carefully curated displays and thoughtfully reconstructed exhibits. Each artifact serves as a bridge between ancient and modern times, reminding us of the enduring legacy of Macedonia and its pivotal role in shaping Greek and European history.

For anyone visiting Thessaloniki, the museum offers an invaluable opportunity to connect with the region’s ancient roots, to explore the lives of its inhabitants, and to reflect on the historical forces that continue to shape modern Greece. It stands not just as a repository of ancient relics but as a living, breathing institution that continues to enrich our understanding of the ancient world.

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Crafting History: A Greek Armorer Recreates The Ancient 'Panoply of Aristion' Inspired by an Archaic Funerary Stele

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Ancient Craft, Modern Hands: Dimitrios Katsikis Reimagines The Panoply of Aristion, Citizen of Erchia

In the field of ancient Greek armor creation, one name stands out: Dimitrios Katsikis, the sole armorer in Greece who has managed to revive a long-lost craft. His work not only preserves the ancient art of Greek armory but also breathes new life into the historical and cultural heritage of Greece. His latest project, the reproduction of the famous panoply of Aristion, a prominent figure from the archaic period, has become a striking addition to his celebrated collection of hand-forged armors.

Dimitrios Katsikis has established a unique niche in Greece, having developed a new sector of cultural, educational, and touristic interest through the art of Hellenic armory. His dedication to this craft has transformed the way people view ancient Greek history, especially through his innovative reproductions of historically significant armors. This time, Katsikis focused on the ancient city of Spata, his hometown, which dates back to the archaic period, aiming to highlight the region’s rich history and unveil hidden archaeological treasures. His latest project promises to strengthen the cultural footprint of the city and promote its ancient legacy.

Click on image to visit the website.

Aristion’s Panoply: A Symbol of Greek Military Excellence

The central figure of this work is Aristion, the oldest known citizen of ancient Erchia (modern-day Spata, Attica), who lived during the 6th century BCE. His funerary stele, carved from Pentelic marble around 510 BCE, depicts Aristion as a young, bearded hoplite, clad in full military armor, including a Corinthian helmet with a crest, a linen cuirass, greaves, and a spear. This stele, crafted by the renowned sculptor Aristocles, has been exhibited for decades at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens (Exhibit No. 29).

Katsikis’ reproduction of Aristion’s panoply is based on the relief from the stele and its polychromatic plaster cast as it was displayed in the groundbreaking exhibition "Coloured Gods: The Polychromy of Ancient Statues." Organized by the German classical archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann, the exhibition highlighted how ancient Greek sculptures originally appeared in vibrant colors, overturning the misconception of monochrome white marble statues. The reconstruction of the stele (Version B) was realized in 2006 in collaboration with the painter Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann, bringing Aristion's image back to life.

The Craft Behind the Armor

Katsikis meticulously recreated Aristion’s armor, ensuring every detail was historically accurate. The cuirass, or dermatothorax, was made from thick, vegetable-tanned leather, dyed in a yellow hue and adorned with intricate decorations. It featured shoulder guards, a primary torso section, and double flaps. The front of the shoulder guards was embellished with pairs of colorful stars and lion heads in frontal display, while geometric patterns ran horizontally across the chest, and a zig-zag design bordered the lower flaps. The exposed right armpit area, vulnerable to attack, was protected by scale armor, a feature commonly found on sculptures of the period, such as the Heracles archer statue from the Temple of Aphaea on Aegina. The edges of the cuirass were bound in folded blue leather, hand-stitched, and secured by bronze lion-shaped clasps, a feature typical of ancient Greek armor.

The greaves were crafted from bronze sheets, hammered hot into shape, and lined with soft fabric. Their edges were sewn with yellow leather, and the exterior was painted blue, mimicking the original appearance as seen on the stele. Katsikis also hand-forged a Corinthian-style helmet, made from a single 60-centimeter copper disc and equipped with a colorful horsehair crest. The crest was attached to the helmet with animal glue, emphasizing the artisan’s attention to historical authenticity.

The shield, an integral part of the hoplite's equipment, was wooden, adorned with a mythological sphinx in vivid colors, following Brinkmann’s research into the polychromy of ancient statues.

A Triumph of Historical Recreation

Katsikis' recreation of Aristion's armor is a testament to his dedication to reviving an ancient craft and presenting it in a tangible, three-dimensional form. This museum-quality reproduction allows viewers to envision what the ancient hoplite Aristion might have looked like in full battle attire, as immortalized by the sculptor Aristocles.

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This incredible exhibit is now housed in the new Cultural Center of the Municipality of Spata, located in the city's former First Elementary School. It represents a major cultural achievement for the local community, as well as a valuable contribution to the wider understanding of ancient Greek military history.

Dimitrios Katsikis' work, in collaboration with archaeologists and historians, is more than just an artistic endeavor; it is an important cultural project that bridges the gap between modern society and the ancient world. His dedication to the craft of armory has not only rekindled an ancient tradition but has also ensured that the legacy of Aristion and other historical figures will continue to inspire future generations.

Is This Figure Depicting Alexander the Great? A Study of the Hunt Fresco from Philip II's Tomb

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The "Hunt" fresco from Tomb II at Vergina, Northern Greece, also known as the tomb of Philip II, has long been regarded as one of the most significant examples of ancient Greek art. Discovered in 1977, the fresco has attracted much scholarly attention, not only for its stunning depiction of a royal hunt but for the potential identification of one of its central figures as a youthful Alexander the Great. Scholars have debated whether this vibrant scene commemorates a specific historical moment, or rather, whether it is a symbolic representation of Macedonian royal ideals and heroism. This article delves into the evidence, both artistic and cultural, to assess whether the central figure in this fresco indeed represents Alexander the Great.

The Discovery of Tomb II and Its Significance

Tomb II, discovered in the ancient city of Aegae (modern Vergina), is traditionally identified as the resting place of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great. The tomb is richly decorated, featuring a facade with a monumental fresco that spans the length of the tomb's front. The fresco depicts a lively hunting scene with several figures, horses, and hunting dogs engaging in a chase of wild animals such as lions, boars, and deer.

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GR06 1956 Royal Macedonian Tomb, Vergina

The tomb's discovery was a significant archaeological event, as it provided one of the few extant examples of large-scale painting from the Hellenistic period. More importantly, it shed light on the self-image and symbolism employed by the Macedonian royal family. The depiction of the hunt was not merely an artistic flourish but a carefully crafted image meant to convey the ideals of kingship, valor, and the heroic nature of the dynasty.

The Central Figure: Alexander or a Generic Hero?

At the heart of the debate surrounding this fresco is the identity of the figure wearing a purple tunic and diadem, who is placed prominently in the center of the scene. This individual, mounted on horseback and wielding a spear, has led many scholars to suggest that it is none other than Alexander the Great in his youth. His posture, regal attire, and central position within the composition all contribute to this hypothesis.

However, identifying the figure as Alexander is not without its complications. While the use of royal symbols such as the diadem suggests a figure of great importance, some scholars argue that the fresco represents a generalized heroic or royal figure rather than a specific individual. Hallie M. Franks, in her analysis of the frieze, posits that while the central figure may evoke the image of Alexander, the scene itself transcends historical specificity​. Instead, it is rooted in a long-standing Macedonian tradition where royal hunts were emblematic of kingship, valor, and heroism.

Symbolism of the Royal Hunt in Macedonian Culture

The royal hunt was a deeply ingrained symbol in Macedonian culture, embodying both the physical prowess and heroic nature of the king and his dynasty. In this context, the fresco may not be meant to capture a specific event from Alexander's life but rather to evoke the timeless qualities of heroism and leadership that defined the Macedonian kings. Hunts in Greek and Near Eastern traditions often symbolized a rite of passage or an assertion of dominance, making them a fitting metaphor for the power of the royal family.

This interpretation aligns with ancient Macedonian ideals, where the king was viewed as both a warrior and a hero, not unlike the figures from Homeric epic. The image of the royal hunt, therefore, was a potent symbol of the ruler's strength, bravery, and connection to divine or heroic ancestors​. By including the purple-clad figure at the center, the fresco connects the rulers of Macedonia to this heroic tradition, whether or not the figure is a direct portrait of Alexander.

Iconographic Analysis: Artistic Style and Influence

Artistically, the fresco draws on both Hellenic and Near Eastern influences. The attention to detail in the landscape, the dynamic movement of the animals, and the compositional balance are all indicative of a highly skilled artist working within the broader Greek tradition of naturalism. However, some elements, such as the depiction of the riders and their costumes, reflect Macedonian and possibly Eastern influences.

The central figure's attire—the purple tunic and diadem—is reminiscent of royal iconography that would later become synonymous with Alexander's imagery as king. This connection has led many to believe that this fresco was created during or shortly after Alexander's reign to honor the royal family, particularly Philip II, and to establish a visual continuity between father and son​. The notion that the fresco depicts Alexander is further supported by the youthful appearance of the figure and the detailed attention to royal symbols.

Counterarguments: A Timeless Representation of Kingship

Despite the compelling visual evidence, some scholars argue against a direct identification of the figure as Alexander. Instead, they suggest that the fresco serves as an allegorical representation of Macedonian kingship, where the hunt symbolizes the heroic attributes of the monarchy as a whole. This view emphasizes the fresco's function as a timeless icon rather than a specific historical moment. According to this perspective, the central figure may be any member of the royal family, with the scene serving to promote the dynasty's legitimacy and heroic lineage​. The hunt, in this interpretation, is less about a particular individual and more about what the activity represents—bravery, leadership, and the divine favor bestowed upon the Macedonian kings. Thus, while it is tempting to see Alexander in the central figure, it is equally plausible that the image was meant to be more symbolic and general in its representation of the royal family's ideals.

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Macedonia: Greek or Slavic?

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Conclusion: A Heroic Portrait, But Whose?

The fresco from Tomb II at Vergina remains one of the most important artistic treasures of the ancient Macedonian world. Its rich symbolism and complex imagery offer a window into the ideals and self-image of the royal family. Whether or not the central figure truly depicts Alexander the Great remains an open question. The regal attire, prominent position, and youthful appearance all point toward Alexander, but the broader cultural context of the fresco suggests that it may also be a more generalized representation of Macedonian kingship.

In the end, the fresco serves as a powerful visual statement about the heroic nature of the Macedonian dynasty, regardless of whether the central figure is meant to be a historical portrait of Alexander or a symbolic representation of royal ideals. What is clear, however, is that the hunt was a key part of the Macedonian conception of kingship, and this fresco enshrines that ideal in a dramatic and visually arresting manner. The fresco’s beauty and historical significance continue to captivate scholars and art enthusiasts alike, preserving the heroic aura of Macedonia's royal house for future generations to ponder​.

The Colonnade Entrance of Djoser Complex Resembling Greek Temples: A Precursor to the Doric Order?

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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One theory about the origins of the Doric order contends that Egyptian architecture had an influence. Greek traders may have drawn inspiration from the monumental structures they came across, such as the colonnade entrance of the Djoser Complex, which resembles later Doric columns in Greece, given that they were present in Egypt as early as the 7th century BC.

Introduction: Cross-Cultural Inspirations

The architectural achievements of ancient civilizations are often seen as isolated marvels, but historical interactions across the Mediterranean likely sparked inspiration between different cultures. One compelling theory is the connection between Egyptian architecture, specifically the structures of the Djoser Complex, and the development of the Greek Doric order in temple construction. With Greek traders and settlers present in Egypt as early as the 7th century BC, it is plausible that they encountered and were influenced by the majestic stonework of Egyptian temples and complexes. This article explores the possibility that the colonnade entrance of Djoser's funerary complex may have inspired key elements of the Doric order in Greek temples.

The Djoser Complex: A Revolutionary Architectural Feat

Constructed around the dawn of Egypt’s 3rd Dynasty, the Djoser Complex is a marvel of early Egyptian architecture, designed by the brilliant architect and later-deified figure Imhotep. This funerary complex marked a shift in architectural techniques, moving from traditional mud-brick structures to stone construction. Imhotep’s ability to translate the delicate and impermanent materials of early Egyptian architecture—like reeds and wood—into lasting stone monuments signaled a revolutionary leap forward in building techniques.

One of the most significant innovations within the complex is its vast size. The enclosure surrounding the complex stretches 600 yards (549 meters) long and 300 yards (274 meters) wide, rising over 30 feet (9.1 meters). This immense structure, composed of smaller stone blocks rather than large limestone slabs like those found in later pyramids, demonstrates the early experiments in stone construction. This wall was more than just a boundary; it represented a monumental feat of engineering and design, showcasing the ambition of Egypt’s builders.

The Enclosure Wall: Massive and Majestic

The enclosure wall is one of the earliest examples of large-scale stone construction. Unlike the simple mud-brick walls of earlier periods, the stones used here were small and brick-like, allowing for precision and intricacy in construction. The structure boasted 15 doorways, of which only one—on the eastern side—was a true entrance. The rest were false doors, symbolically significant in Egyptian religious architecture as portals between the physical and spiritual realms.

Entrance Colonnade: Reeds, Columns, and Ancient Ingenuity

The entrance colonnade, a striking feature of the Djoser Complex, comprised 20 pairs of engaged columns, reminiscent of bundled reeds or palm ribs—a direct nod to Egypt’s architectural roots in natural materials. These columns line a corridor leading into the complex, with 24 small chambers thought to represent the nomes, or districts, of Upper and Lower Egypt. These chambers may have once contained statues of the king or deities, adding to the sacred atmosphere of the structure.

The roof of the colonnade was designed to resemble tree trunks, emphasizing the imitation of organic forms in stone—a hallmark of Imhotep’s genius. While the columns provided visual support, they were not trusted structurally, as evidenced by their attachment to side walls. This hesitation reveals the transitional nature of Egyptian architecture, as builders adapted their methods from mud-brick to stone.

Engaged Columns: Structural and Symbolic Beauty

One of the most remarkable features of the colonnade is its use of engaged columns, which are not free-standing but connected to a wall. Unlike later pilasters, where columns are merely decorative, the side walls in the Djoser Complex project outward, creating bays between each set of columns. These columns, with their circular design carved to resemble papyrus bundles, reveal a blend of aesthetic and symbolic elements. The papyrus motif was not merely decorative; it was steeped in symbolic meaning, representing growth, life, and creation in Egyptian culture.

The precise, smooth joints of the stone blocks further highlight the craftsmanship involved. Imhotep’s architectural vision ensured that these early stone structures would endure, preserving the complex’s grandeur for millennia.

The Greek Doric Order: Origins and Evolution

The Greek Doric order, one of the three canonical orders of ancient architecture, is characterized by its simplicity and strength. The columns, with their smooth or fluted shafts, circular capitals, and lack of a base, are a defining feature of Greek temples from the Archaic period onward. Doric columns rest directly on the stylobate, the platform on which the temple is built, emphasizing their sturdy, grounded appearance.

The Doric order’s origins are still debated among scholars. One theory posits that it developed from early wooden prototypes, while another suggests Mycenaean architecture as its inspiration. However, the possibility that the Doric order drew inspiration from Egypt, particularly the monumental stone structures like those found in the Djoser Complex, adds a new dimension to our understanding of cross-cultural exchanges in the ancient world.

Theories of Doric Influence: From Egypt to Greece

The theory that Greek traders encountered Egyptian architectural forms during their visits to the Nile is a plausible one. By the 7th century BC, Greeks were actively trading and establishing colonies in the eastern Mediterranean, and Egypt’s monumental architecture would have been hard to ignore. The use of stone in Egyptian temples, particularly the colonnaded halls with their towering engaged columns, may have left a lasting impression on Greek builders.

The resemblance between the Djoser Complex’s colonnade and early Greek Doric columns is notable. Both feature simple, strong columns with circular capitals, and both emphasize the importance of structure and form over decoration. Although the Greek Doric order evolved to include more refined details, the basic architectural language may have originated from encounters with Egyptian stonework.

A Shared Architectural Heritage

The architectural styles of Egypt and Greece, though distinct, share certain fundamental qualities, particularly in their use of columns and stone construction. The Djoser Complex, with its innovative colonnade entrance and massive enclosure walls, may well have influenced the development of the Greek Doric order. Whether through direct observation or a broader cultural exchange, the parallels between these two ancient civilizations remind us that architecture is a dynamic, evolving art, shaped by the interactions and inspirations of peoples across time and space.

By examining these connections, we gain a deeper appreciation for the shared heritage of Mediterranean civilizations and the architectural innovations that continue to inspire us today.

Phrygian and Greek: A Shared Ancestry or Linguistic Convergence?

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The relationship between the Greek and Greek languages has been a subject of scholarly interest for decades. Ancient inscriptions, combined with linguistic analysis, have provided various insights into their potential connections. There is a strong belief among scholars that some Neo-Phrygian inscriptions represent a Greek dialect, specifically an Achaean Greek dialect, which shares common features with Arcadian, Cypriot, and Pamphylian dialects. This observation suggests a level of linguistic convergence or a shared linguistic heritage, potentially due to prolonged contact or even a shared ancestral language. This article explores this complex relationship by examining the historical, linguistic, and archaeological evidence, analyzing key similarities and differences, and considering the implications of these findings.

Historical Context of Greek and Phrygian Interaction

The historical interactions between the Greek and Phrygian peoples are well-documented, especially in the context of ancient Anatolia. Phrygia, located in what is now modern-day Turkey, was an ancient kingdom with close geographical and cultural ties to the Greek world. The Phrygians, known for their rich cultural heritage, were often mentioned in Greek literature and historical records. Ancient Greek authors such as Herodotus and Plato noted similarities between the languages spoken by the two peoples, which has led to ongoing debates among modern scholars.

The Palaeo-Balkanic Indo-European branch based on the chapters "Albanian" (Hyllested & Joseph 2022) and "Armenian" (Olsen & Thorsø 2022) in Olander (ed.) The Indo-European Language Family

The evidence suggests that linguistic similarities between the two languages may not solely be the result of random convergence but possibly due to significant historical interactions. The broader cultural and linguistic interactions across the eastern Mediterranean, including Phrygia, further support the idea of a close relationship between Greek and Phrygian languages. These regions were part of a larger cultural and geographical union during antiquity, which included the eastern Mediterranean and parts of the southern Balkans, where various languages and cultures intersected. This interaction likely contributed to the linguistic similarities observed between Greek and Phrygian.

Linguistic Evidence Supporting a Graeco-Phrygian Connection

Linguistic evidence plays a crucial role in understanding the relationship between Greek and Phrygian. The modern consensus among scholars is that Greek is the closest relative of Phrygian within the Indo-European language family. This view is supported by numerous shared phonological, morphological, and lexical features. For instance, Obrador Cursach’s analysis of 36 isoglosses shows that Phrygian shares 34 with Greek, with 22 being exclusive to the two languages. Such a high degree of shared features strongly indicates a close genetic relationship, possibly even a common proto-language.

Moreover, the Phrygian language exhibits several phonological characteristics that are strikingly similar to Greek. For example, the treatment of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) laryngeals in both languages is nearly identical, suggesting a shared phonological history. Additionally, the presence of similar suffixes and the treatment of certain consonant clusters further point to a deep linguistic connection. Scholars like Lubotsky have also identified specific sound changes in Phrygian that parallel those in Greek, reinforcing the idea of close linguistic kinship.

However, there is also evidence that complicates this picture. If certain Neo-Phrygian inscriptions indeed reflect a Greek dialect influenced by local Anatolian languages, it becomes challenging to determine whether the similarities between Greek and Phrygian are due to common ancestry or are the result of linguistic borrowing. This complexity is further compounded by the influence of other ancient languages in the region, such as Lydian and Hittite, which also impacted Phrygian. These influences could potentially obscure the original linguistic connections between Greek and Phrygian, making it difficult to disentangle inherited features from those acquired through contact.

Reconstructing Proto-Graeco-Phrygian: Evidence and Challenges

Despite the compelling evidence, reconstructing the exact nature of the relationship between Greek and Phrygian remains challenging. One of the primary difficulties is the fragmentary nature of the Phrygian language, which is known only from a relatively small corpus of inscriptions. Many of these inscriptions remain undeciphered or are only partially understood, limiting the amount of data available for analysis. Furthermore, the possibility of borrowing and linguistic convergence due to prolonged contact between Greek and Phrygian speakers complicates the task of distinguishing between inherited features and later innovations.

The inscriptions described as potentially representing a Greek dialect highlight this challenge. If these inscriptions indeed reflect a Greek dialect influenced by local Anatolian languages, it becomes difficult to determine whether the similarities between Greek and Phrygian are due to common ancestry or are the result of linguistic borrowing. These influences could potentially obscure the original linguistic connections between Greek and Phrygian, making it difficult to disentangle inherited features from those acquired through contact.

The Midas inscription over the cornice of the Midas monument. It reads Ates... Midai lavagtaei vanaktei edaes ("Ates... has dedicated [this monument) to Midas, leader of the people and ruler").

Implications for the Study of Indo-European Languages

The study of the relationship between Greek and Greek has broader implications for our understanding of the Indo-European language family. If the hypothesis of a proto-Graeco-Phrygian language is correct, it would suggest that Greek and Phrygian split from a common ancestor later than previously thought. This would have significant implications for the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European language and the understanding of the spread of Indo-European languages across Europe and Asia.

Furthermore, the close relationship between Greek and Phrygian may shed light on the linguistic and cultural exchanges in the eastern Mediterranean and Anatolia during the Bronze and Iron Ages. The idea of a shared linguistic area highlights the importance of considering both genetic and aural features when studying ancient languages. This approach could lead to new insights into the processes of language change and the interactions between different linguistic communities in antiquity.

Map showing places where inscriptions in the ancient Phrygian language have been found. Data source: Bartomeu Obrador Cursach, Lexicon of the Phrygian inscriptions (doctoral dissertation, Barcelona, 2018).

The relationship between the Greek and Phrygian languages is a complex and multifaceted topic that continues to intrigue scholars. The evidence suggests a close connection, possibly even a shared proto-language, but the fragmentary nature of the Phrygian language and the challenges of distinguishing between inherited and borrowed features make definitive conclusions difficult. Nevertheless, the study of Greek and Phrygian offers valuable insights into the linguistic and cultural history of the eastern Mediterranean and the broader Indo-European language family. As new discoveries and analyses emerge, our understanding of this relationship will undoubtedly continue to evolve.

Chalcidian Pioneers: The Forgotten Mariners of the Mediterranean

In the vast expanse of ancient history, certain civilizations stand out not just for their military might or monumental architecture, but for their remarkable ability to forge new paths across unknown territories. Among these, the Chalcidians of Euboea remain unsung heroes, despite their profound impact on the ancient world. From the 12th to the 4th century BC, these intrepid seafarers and settlers embarked on daring voyages, establishing colonies that would lay the groundwork for what would become the cradle of Western civilization.

The Chalcidians, originating from the city of Chalcis on the island of Euboea, were unrivaled in their prowess as navigators and colonizers. Their ventures took them across the Mediterranean, from the shores of the Middle East and Asia Minor to the distant coasts of Africa, Illyria, and especially Halkidiki in northern Greece, Italy, and Sicily. Long before the more famous colonization efforts of other Greek city-states, the Chalcidians had already sown the seeds of what would later bloom into Magna Graecia, the foundation of Greater Greece.

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The Very First Alphabet Scripts of Eastern Mediterranean and Europe: Phoenician - Euboean - Etruscan

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This book, The Unknown Pioneers of the Mediterranean, a monumental work by a dedicated journalist, photographer, graphic designer, and amateur historian, Vagias Katsos, brings to light the incredible story of the Chalcidian colonization for the first time in a comprehensive document. It traces the historical paths of these far-flung homelands, chronicling their rise, flourishing, and eventual decline. Through detailed research and vivid narration, the book also highlights the naval, military, and cultural superiority of Chalcis during its Golden Age in the 8th century BC, a period often overshadowed by the more well-known histories of Athens and Sparta.

For those interested in the underappreciated narratives of ancient history, this work offers a treasure trove of knowledge, shedding light on the remarkable achievements of a people who were true pioneers of their time. The Chalcidians may not have had the same fame as other ancient Greeks, but their contributions to the development of the Mediterranean and the shaping of modern Western civilization are undeniable. This book stands as a testament to their legacy, ensuring that their story will not be forgotten.

Get the book quickly and easily here!

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A few words about the author

Vagias Katsos was born in Chalkida, on January 31st, 1973. He has worked in all kinds of media as a journalist, photographer and graphic designer. In 2004 he created «Square», which received an award (Best Magazine Design, EBGE 2005) and remains to this day the longest-running magazine in Euboea. In 2014 the printed publication «Square» was replaced by its digital twin, «square.gr», which resulted in another award (Best First Page Design in Site, Regional Media Awards 2016). Nowadays, he authors historical articles regarding his native island of Euboea in «Square History» following systematic research. «The Unknown Pioneers of the Mediterranean» is his first book.

Truly impressive: A description by Pausanias is faithfully brought to life in the video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey

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by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The ancient world comes to life through video games, where historical accuracy often merges with creative storytelling. One such example is the remarkable depiction of the colossal statue of Athena Promachos in the popular game Assassin's Creed Odyssey. This representation is not just a random piece of artistic license but a faithful recreation rooted in historical descriptions, particularly those provided by the 2nd-century AD traveler and geographer, Pausanias. His work, Description of Greece (Hellados Periegesis), serves as a crucial bridge between classical literature and modern archaeology, offering detailed insights into the ancient world that still resonate today.

The Historical and Cultural Significance of Athena Promachos

According to Pausanias, Athena Promachos, also known as "the great bronze Athena," was a sizeable statue that once dominated the Acropolis of Athens. It was a sculpture by the well-known artist Pheidias that towered over Athens' sacred hill between the Propylaea and the Parthenon. This imposing figure of the goddess Athena, revered as both the protector of the city and the embodiment of wisdom and warfare, was made entirely of bronze and stood approximately thirty feet tall.

The statue is believed to have been commissioned as a votive offering in gratitude for a significant military victory. While there is some debate over which conflict it commemorated—whether the Battle of Marathon or the Persian Wars—it is widely accepted that it was a symbol of Athenian strength and resilience. Pausanias' account vividly describes how the spear of Athena Promachos was so enormous that it could be seen from afar, even by sailors navigating the waters near Cape Sounion, some seventy kilometers southeast of Athens. This visual connection between the statue and the sea not only underscored Athena's protective presence but also symbolized the far-reaching power of Athens during its Golden Age.

Statue of Athena Promachos. credit: Assassins Creed Odyssey by Ubisoft, (Game Screenshot)

Cape Sounion: A Strategic and Symbolic Location

Cape Sounion, the promontory at the southernmost tip of the Attic peninsula, plays a significant role in this historical narrative. Famous for its Temple of Poseidon, another monumental structure of ancient Greece, Cape Sounion was a critical maritime location. The temple, perched on the headland surrounded by the Aegean Sea, served as a landmark for ancient sailors, much like the towering spear of Athena Promachos did from the Acropolis. This natural and architectural synergy between land and sea highlights the interconnectedness of Athenian religious, cultural, and military power.

The significance of Cape Sounion goes beyond its religious and maritime importance. It served as a sentinel point for the Athenian navy, watching over the crucial trade routes and protecting the city-state from potential invaders. The Temple of Poseidon and the sight of Athena Promachos from the Acropolis would have reinforced a sense of security and divine favor for those approaching Athens, whether by land or sea.

Photo: Zois Fotis

Pausanias: The Chronicler of Ancient Greece

Pausanias, whose detailed descriptions have allowed modern scholars and enthusiasts to connect with the ancient world, was more than just a traveler. Born in Lydia in 110 AD, he spent nearly three decades exploring Greece, documenting its monuments, sacred spaces, and geographical wonders. His Description of Greece is an invaluable source that offers a snapshot of the cultural and religious landscape of Greece during the Roman Empire. Pausanias' work is not just a topographical guide; it delves into the myths, history, and societal values of the time, making it an essential resource for understanding the ancient world.

John Elsner, in his article "Pausanias: A Greek Pilgrim in the Roman World," suggests that Pausanias' journey through Greece was more than a mere exploration; it was a pilgrimage to reclaim and preserve the glory of a Greek past that was still relevant in his time, despite the dominance of Rome. His descriptions serve as a testament to the enduring legacy of Greek culture and its influence on the Roman world, as well as its lasting impact on modern times.

Cape Sounion and the Temple of Poseidon on June 9, 2018, Photo: George E. Koronaios

From Pausanias to Assassin’s Creed: A Journey Through Time

The meticulous recreation of Athena Promachos in Assassin's Creed Odyssey is a testament to the enduring influence of Pausanias' work. The game, set in an open-world environment that captures the essence of ancient Greece, allows players to experience the grandeur of the Acropolis and its iconic landmarks, including the imposing statue of Athena Promachos. The developers of the game have taken great care to ensure that the statue's depiction aligns with historical accounts, particularly in its visibility from afar—a feature that Pausanias highlighted in his writings.

While the game necessarily condenses distances and alters certain aspects for gameplay purposes, the essence of the historical landmarks remains intact. The sight of Athena Promachos’ spear visible from the coast of Cape Sounion in the game echoes the ancient reality described by Pausanias, providing players with a tangible connection to the past.

Here is the original description of Pausanias, with an English translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd., 1918:

[1.28.2] In addition to the works I have mentioned, there are two tithes dedicated by the Athenians after wars. There is first a bronze Athena, tithe from the Persians who landed at Marathon. It is the work of Pheidias, but the reliefs upon the shield, including the fight between Centaurs and Lapithae, are said to be from the chisel of Mys, for whom they say Parrhasius the son of Evenor, designed this and the rest of his works. The point of the spear of this Athena and the crest of her helmet are visible to those sailing to Athens, as soon as Sunium is passed. Then there is a bronze chariot, tithe from the Boeotians and the Chalcidians in Euboea. There are two other offerings, a statue of Pericles, the son of Xanthippus, and the best worth seeing of the works of Pheidias, the statue of Athena called Lemnian after those who dedicated it. (“Description of Greece”, Attica, Athens)

The Intersection of History and Modern Media

The accurate representation of Athena Promachos in Assassin's Creed Odyssey serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of historical sources like Pausanias in modern interpretations of the ancient world. By blending history with interactive media, the game not only entertains but also educates, bringing the awe-inspiring achievements of ancient Greece to a global audience. The legacy of Athena Promachos, preserved through both Pausanias' writings and modern digital recreations, continues to inspire and captivate, bridging the gap between past and present in a way that is truly remarkable.