Hyperdiffusionism: The Contours of a Pseudoarchaeological Hypothesis

Hyperdiffusionism, a term that echoes through the corridors of pseudoarchaeology, proposes a singular, albeit controversial, narrative for the development and dissemination of cultural practices, technologies, and religious beliefs across ancient civilizations. This hypothesis, which has its roots in the early 20th-century scholarship of individuals like Grafton Elliot Smith, contends that a single progenitor spread the cultural branches of great civilizations far and wide, from the building of pyramids to the worship of solar deities.

At the heart of hyperdiffusionism lies the contention that a singular, often mythical, civilization—be it Atlantis, Lemuria, or a historically recognized culture like ancient Egypt—acted as the cultural fountainhead from which all major civilizations drew their inspirations. This notion extends to various facets of human endeavor, including religious practices, architectural marvels like megaliths, and even the intricate process of mummification, pointing towards a linear transmission of ideas and practices across vast geographical expanses.

The Proponents and Their Propositions

Grafton Elliot Smith, one of the most vocal advocates of this theory, attributed a wide array of cultural phenomena, from megalithic constructions to sun worship, to the diffusion of a so-called Heliolithic culture, with ancient Egypt posited as the epicenter of this cultural wave. Smith's claims, along with those of Charles Hapgood (who said that ancient sea kings mapped out a prehistoric world that was much more connected than was previously thought) and Barry Fell (who thought that Celts and Phoenicians came to New England), create an interesting web of civilization-spanning connections that are based on speculation rather than history.

Critiques and Counterpoints

The hypothesis, however, has not been without its detractors. Scholars like Alexander Goldenweiser and Stephen Williams have criticized hyperdiffusionism for its lack of empirical support and for often ignoring the possibility of independent invention and parallel development among different societies. The theory has been lambasted for its overreliance on coincidental similarities and its failure to account for the complexity and diversity of human cultures, which may develop similar solutions to universal challenges independently of one another.

Alice Kehoe has further criticized hyperdiffusionism as a "grossly racist ideology," suggesting that it underestimates the capacity of non-European societies for innovation and cultural complexity. Her work points towards a more nuanced understanding of cultural exchange, one that allows for independent invention and acknowledges the myriad ways in which societies can interact and influence each other.

Is Gunung Padang The Oldest Pyramid In The World?

Reflections on the Debate

The debate over hyperdiffusionism underscores a broader discussion about the nature of cultural exchange and development. While the theory itself may offer an oversimplified view of human history, it nevertheless opens up avenues for exploring the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations. It reminds us of the human propensity to seek connections and to understand our past as a shared narrative woven from the threads of diverse cultures.

In the end, hyperdiffusionism, with its grand narrative of cultural genesis and dissemination, serves as a testament to the human imagination and our enduring quest to trace the origins of the myriad practices and beliefs that bind us across time and space. While it may not provide a definitive account of our collective past, it certainly enriches the tapestry of human history with its bold conjectures and invites us to question, explore, and debate the myriad pathways through which cultures evolve and influence one another.

The Vinča Script and the Quest for the World's Oldest Writing System

The Vinča script, often mentioned in discussions about the origins of writing, represents a fascinating and enigmatic chapter in the history of human communication. This article aims to explore the Vinča script in depth, examining its history, characteristics, and the ongoing debate over its status as potentially one of the oldest forms of writing.

Historical Context

The Vinča culture, named after a village near Belgrade where significant artifacts were first discovered, thrived in the Balkans, particularly in present-day Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Greece, during the Neolithic era, around 5500 to 4500 BCE. Significant advancements in agriculture, the domestication of animals, and increasingly sophisticated pottery and tool-making techniques all occurred during this time.

Discovery of the Vinča Symbols

The Vinča symbols were first uncovered in the early 20th century. These symbols, inscribed on pottery, figurines, and other clay artifacts, immediately attracted the attention of archaeologists and historians. Their linear, abstract style differed significantly from the pictorial representations seen in contemporary art forms.

Characteristics of the Vinča Script

The symbols consist of various linear and angular marks, some of which appear to be organized in repetitive patterns. The collection includes simple geometric shapes, lines, swirls, and more complex forms that some suggest resemble letters or ideograms.

Debate Over Its Status as Writing

The central debate about the Vinča symbols revolves around whether they constitute a form of writing. If proven to be a true script, the Vinča symbols could predate the earliest known Mesopotamian cuneiform script and Egyptian hieroglyphs, traditionally considered the origins of writing around 3200 BCE.

Arguments for Its Status as Writing

1. Systematic Nature: Proponents argue that the repetitive and systematic nature of the symbols suggests they were used for communication.

2. Wide Geographic Spread: The symbols are found over a broad geographic area, indicating a shared system of symbols across the Vinča culture.

3. Complexity and Consistency: The complexity and consistency of the symbols across different artifacts suggest a degree of sophistication that might indicate a form of writing.

Counterarguments

1. Lack of Contextual Evidence: Critics point out the lack of contextual evidence, such as the symbols being used in different mediums or contexts that unequivocally suggest record-keeping or narrative functions.

2. No Decipherment: Despite numerous attempts, no one has successfully deciphered the Vinča symbols, casting doubt on whether they represent a language.

3. Symbolic or Ritualistic Purpose: Some argue that these symbols might have served a symbolic or ritualistic purpose rather than constituting a form of writing.

Comparison with Other Prehistoric Scripts

The debate about the Vinča script often involves comparisons with other prehistoric scripts such as the Tartaria tablets, the Dispilio Tablet from Greece, and the Jiahu symbols from China. These artifacts also feature undeciphered symbols and have sparked similar debates about the origins of writing.

Current Scholarly Consensus

The current scholarly consensus leans towards a cautious approach. While acknowledging the importance and intrigue of the Vinča symbols, most experts stop short of declaring them a bona fide writing system. The absence of a clear linguistic structure and the lack of decipherment are significant hurdles in classifying these symbols as a form of writing.

In conclusion, while the Vinča script remains a subject of fascination and mystery, the claim that it is the oldest form of writing is still a matter of debate. Its significance, however, in understanding the cognitive and cultural developments of the Neolithic Balkans remains undiminished. As archaeological techniques evolve and new discoveries emerge, the mystery of the Vinča script continues to captivate historians, archaeologists, and linguists alike, offering a tantalizing glimpse into the dawn of human civilization.

Who Were The Pelasgians? (Pre-Historic People of Greece)

Unraveling the Enigma of Pre-Historic Greece

The ancient world, with its myriad cultures and mysterious pasts, has long captivated the imagination of historians and archaeologists alike. Among the many enigmatic groups that pepper the landscape of antiquity, few are as intriguing and elusive as the Pelasgians. Their story is woven into the very fabric of Greek history, emerging as a shadowy precursor to the luminous dawn of classical Greek civilization.

They are perceptible throughout a vast amount of time and space in the ancient Aegean world, but due to the passing of time and the subsequent dominance of Hellenic culture, they are still largely a mystery. Described variously by classical authors as the original inhabitants of Greece, their story is a tapestry of myth, legend, and fragmented historical accounts.

In exploring the Pelasgian enigma, one encounters a labyrinth of questions regarding their origins, language, and culture. Were they the first settlers of the Greek mainland, or a diverse group of indigenous people unified under a Greek nomenclature? Did they speak a language that was an antecedent to Greek or something entirely distinct? Theories abound, but answers are fleeting, like chasing shadows in the dim light of early dawn.

Origins and Identity

The term "Pelasgians" (Ancient Greek: Πελασγοί) primarily referred to the indigenous populations of Greece before the Hellenic era. According to historian Peter Green, this broad designation suggests a diverse and ancient group that predated and possibly influenced early Greek culture.

A lack of conclusive archaeological evidence and unambiguous historical records in antiquity obscures the origins and identity of the Pelasgians. They are often described as the autochthonous people of Greece, predating the arrival of Hellenic tribes. Ancient Greek writers variably portrayed them as ancestors or contemporaries of the early Greeks, possibly inhabiting regions across Greece, the Aegean islands, and parts of Anatolia.

The statements regarding the Pelasgians having lived in the Aegean region before the arrival of the Greeks are intriguing but not entirely supported by current scholarly consensus or scientific evidence. Addressing these assertions requires a careful examination of historical, archaeological, and linguistic evidence.

The consensus is that the Pelasgians were indeed a pre-Hellenic people inhabiting parts of Greece, the Aegean, and possibly other regions. However, the extent to which they were genetically related to the ancient Greeks, Thracians, and Illyrians is not definitively established. Genetic studies have advanced our understanding of ancient populations, but they do not yet provide conclusive evidence about the specific relationships between these groups.

Etymology and Mythology

The etymology of "Pelasgian" is shrouded in uncertainty. The Ancient Greeks linked the term to 'pelargos' (stork), suggesting a migratory origin. Another theory relates 'pelas' to 'near' or 'neighboring land'. Mythologically, the Pelasgians are often connected to the foundational myths of Greek culture. Pelasgus, a figure in Greek mythology, is sometimes considered their eponymous ancestor, often depicted as a primitive, earth-born king, reinforcing their image as the original inhabitants of the Greek lands.

A.J. Van Windekens, a prominent linguist and philologist, contributed significantly to the study of Indo-European languages and their etymology. In his exploration of the ethnonym "Pelasgos," Van Windekens proposed an intriguing etymology that diverges from more traditional interpretations.

According to Van Windekens, the name "Pelasgos" could be derived from an Indo-European root, which he posited as *bhelosgho-s. This root, in his interpretation, translates to "blooming branch" or something akin to it. This suggestion is perhaps quite poetic and symbolic, implying a connection to growth, fertility, or perhaps a flourishing civilization. On the other hand, this etymology may connect the Pelasgians with the Neolithic inhabitants of Greece. This is a fascinating topic that intertwines linguistic analysis with archaeological and historical evidence. Some scholars contend that the Pelasgians represent this pivotal period in Greek prehistory, which was characterized by significant agricultural advancements and the shift from nomadic to settled lifestyles. This hypothesis positions the Pelasgians as pivotal in the dawn of agriculture and settled civilization in ancient Greece, yet the lack of definitive evidence keeps their story enigmatic and largely interpretive.

Linguistic and Cultural Aspects

Linguistically, the Pelasgians are a conundrum. Greek sources described their language as 'barbarian', implying it was non-Greek, yet its specifics remain unknown. This has led to speculation that the Pelasgians spoke a pre-Indo-European language, or possibly a variety of languages reflecting their widespread geographical distribution. Culturally, they are thought to have influenced the developing Greek culture, with some Greek practices and deities possibly having Pelasgian origins. Their language remains a topic of extensive speculation, with various theories suggesting connections to Indo-European, Anatolian, or even non-Indo-European roots.

Regarding the influence of Anatolian languages on Greek, there is evidence of cultural and linguistic exchanges across the Aegean in the ancient world. However, the exact nature and extent of these influences, particularly regarding the development of Greek language and culture, are still subjects of ongoing research and debate.

Archaeological Evidence

Archaeological evidence regarding the Pelasgians is sparse and often indirect. Excavations in regions traditionally associated with them, like Lemnos, Thessaly, and Attica, have unearthed settlements and artifacts suggesting a Neolithic presence. However, unequivocally linking these findings to the Pelasgians is challenging, primarily due to the absence of inscriptions or distinct cultural markers that can be conclusively attributed to them.

Literary References

Literary references to the Pelasgians are found in the works of Homer, Herodotus, Thucydides, and other ancient authors. These accounts are often ambiguous and contradictory, sometimes describing the Pelasgians as barbaric, other times as Greeks. They are mentioned in various contexts, including their participation in the Trojan War and their widespread settlements across the Aegean region.

The paradox of the Pelasgians lies in their simultaneous omnipresence and obscurity in ancient Greek records. They are everywhere and nowhere, a people whose absence is just as important as their presence, according to Homer, Herodotus, and scholars throughout history. Their role in the formation of Greek identity, their linguistic contributions, and their cultural practices are subjects of ongoing academic debate and fascination.

DNA Evidence and the Pelasgian-Anatolian Connection in the Aegean Neolithic Tapestry

Finding Neolithic DNA in the Greek mainland, Crete, and Anatolia shows a link between the Pelasgians and people from Anatolia. This is an interesting mix of archaeogenetics, linguistics, and cultural history that sheds light on the complex web of ancient civilizations in the Aegean and Near Eastern areas.

The discovery of similar Neolithic DNA across regions inhabited by these ancient groups suggests a significant level of genetic continuity that spans across geographical boundaries. This genetic similarity indicates that the populations on the Helladic mainland, Crete, and Anatolia shared common ancestors during the Neolithic period, highlighting a deeper prehistoric connection that predates the emergence of distinct cultural and linguistic identities known from later historical periods.

Turning to Colin Renfrew's Anatolian hypothesis, it postulates that Anatolia was the place where Indo-European languages first spread during the Neolithic era. This theory aligns with the genetic evidence of shared ancestries, suggesting that as Neolithic farmers from Anatolia migrated into Europe, they brought with them the proto-Indo-European language, which would later diversify into various language families, including Greek. If the Pelasgians were indeed part of this widespread Neolithic population, as suggested by the genetic evidence, it could imply that they were either speakers of a proto-Indo-European language or were influenced by the linguistic changes brought about by these migrations.

Furthermore, the concept of a pre-Greek linguistic substrate refers to the influence of non-Greek, possibly indigenous, languages on the Greek language as it developed. The presence of non-Indo-European or proto-Indo-European elements in Greek, some of which might be traced back to the Pelasgian language (if it indeed was distinct from Greek), could be a remnant of these early linguistic interactions. This substrate could potentially be linked to the languages spoken in Anatolia, reflecting a complex web of cultural and linguistic exchanges over millennia.

Neolithic DNA evidence shows that the Pelasgians and Anatolian people had genetic, cultural, and linguistic links. These links suggest that these ancient groups were connected and interacted with each other. The Anatolian hypothesis and the idea of a pre-Greek linguistic substrate make for a strong framework for understanding these connections. They suggest that the roots of ancient Greek civilization and Indo-European languages may be much more connected to their Neolithic ancestors in Anatolia than was previously thought. These findings not only challenge our understanding of ancient ethnic and linguistic identities but also highlight the fluid and interconnected nature of human societies in the ancient world.

Theories and Speculations

The lack of concrete information has led to various theories and speculations about the Pelasgians. These range from considering them the bearers of a pre-Greek, possibly Anatolian or Thracian culture, to theories proposing them as a branch of the wider Indo-European family. Some modern scholars view them as a cultural and linguistic conglomerate, representing the diverse ethnic and linguistic landscape of the pre-Hellenic Aegean and Balkan regions.

In conclusion, the Pelasgians, as elusive as they are intriguing, represent a pivotal piece in the puzzle of ancient Mediterranean civilizations. Their study offers a fascinating glimpse into the complexities of cultural identity, linguistic evolution, and historical interpretation in one of the most historically significant regions of the ancient world.

The Ages of Man in Greek Mythology

---

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

---

The Ages of Man in Greek Mythology: Hesiod's Perspective

Greek mythology, with its intricate web of tales and legends, often provides profound insights into human nature and society's evolution. One of the most intriguing of these narratives is Hesiod's account of the "Ages of Man" as detailed in his work "Works and Days". This tale chronicles the successive eras of humankind, each defined by its own unique characteristics, virtues, and flaws.

Golden Age: Paradise Lost

The Golden Age signifies the pinnacle of human existence, where peace and prosperity reigned supreme. Mankind lived in harmony, untouched by labor or sorrow, and the earth spontaneously yielded its fruits. The inhabitants of this age were said to be molded by the gods themselves and lived like them — free from worries, old age, or conflict. When their time came, they gently passed away, becoming benevolent spirits that roamed the earth.

Silver Age: The Decline Begins

Though still a prosperous era, the Silver Age marks a decline from the previous age's perfection. The men of this age were created by the gods to be inferior to their golden predecessors. They lived as children for a hundred years, looked after by their mothers. Upon reaching adulthood, they lived briefly, often succumbing to their own folly and ignorance. These men did not honor the gods, leading Zeus to bury them, but they too had an afterlife as spirits, albeit less exalted than those of the Golden Age.

Bronze Age: Age of War and Valor

Born from ash trees, the men of the Bronze Age were formidable, aggressive, and robust. Their hearts were as hard as the metal they were named after, and they took pride in their strength and combat prowess. Though they enjoyed the fruits of the earth, their lives were dominated by warfare and conflict. Their own violent tendencies led to their ultimate destruction, and they found no afterlife, being consigned to the "dank house of Hades."

Heroic Age: A Brief Respite

Unlike the other ages, the Heroic Age wasn't a product of natural succession but rather an interlude in the narrative. It was an era of demigods and heroes, who took part in great adventures and fought in significant wars like the Trojan War and Thebes' adventures. Many of these heroes found eternal life on the Isles of the Blessed, enjoying an existence similar to the Golden Age.

Iron Age: The Descent into Strife

Hesiod himself believed he lived in the Iron Age, an era marked by toil, sorrow, and decline in divine influence. Men labored hard, facing the wrath of the seasons, and were burdened by injustice and wickedness. The bonds of hospitality and love weakened, replaced by betrayal and mistrust. Hesiod foretold that this age would continue to deteriorate until humanity's inherent goodness disappeared, prompting Zeus to destroy this race as he had others.

READ ALSO

Hesiod's "Ages of Man" paints a cyclical view of human history, oscillating between periods of prosperity and decay. While it offers a moralistic interpretation of human development, it also encapsulates the ancient Greeks' understanding of their world — a combination of divine intervention and human nature. Through the prism of these ages, we gain insights into not just ancient beliefs but also the perennial issues that have fascinated and challenged humanity throughout time.

Debunking the Myth of Christmas's Pagan Roots: The True Origins of Christmas

---

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

---

In the realm of history, where facts interlace with myths, one question has persisted like a lingering shadow over the holiday season: Is Christmas truly a pagan rip-off? It's a question that has tantalized the curious minds of historians and skeptics alike, invoking tales of intrigue and influence. The narrative suggests that Christmas, the beloved Christian celebration of Christ's birth, bears a striking resemblance to pagan revelries like Saturnalia and Sol Invictus, lurking in the shadows of antiquity.

But what if this narrative, like so many historical whispers, held more fiction than fact? Let’s embark on a journey to peel back the layers of time, dust off ancient manuscripts, and uncover the genuine story behind Christmas. It's a story that transcends the centuries, blending faith, tradition, and a hint of controversy.

Join me as we traverse the annals of history, distinguishing between synchronistic adaptations and deliberate rejections, examining the origins of Christmas celebrations, and unearthing the truth about December 25 as the chosen date. In this quest for historical authenticity, we'll challenge the prevailing belief and illuminate the lesser-known facets of this cherished holiday. Welcome to a scholarly exploration of the age-old inquiry: Is Christmas truly a pagan rip-off, or does its story carry deeper, more profound roots?

The Alleged Connection to Pagan Celebrations

One of the prevailing narratives regarding Christmas suggests that it was created as a Christian response to pagan festivities, specifically Saturnalia and Sol Invictus. Saturnalia, a Roman winter festival, was notorious for its debauchery and the worship of the god Saturn. Sol Invictus, on the other hand, marked the end of the winter solstice, celebrated on December 25 by the Roman emperor. According to this narrative, early Christians co-opted these pagan festivals to make Christianity more appealing.

Roots of Christmas: Synchronistic or Deliberate Rejection?

To truly understand the origins of Christmas, we need to distinguish between two possibilities: a synchronistic copycat or a deliberate rejection. Early Christians did indeed adapt and Christianize some pagan festivals, but their motivation was not to mimic paganism but rather to transform it. Christmas, as a celebration of Christ's birth, did not necessarily begin as a pagan festival, even if it happened to fall on the same date as Saturnalia and Sol Invictus.

Christian testimonies before the year 274 placed the birth of Jesus on December 25

The absence of early references to Christmas celebrations by prominent church fathers like Irenaeus and Tertullian suggests that the celebration of Christ's birth was not initially on the ecclesiastical calendar. Furthermore, Origen even ridiculed Roman celebrations of birth anniversaries, indicating a lack of association between Christmas and pagan festivities.

The first mention of December 25 as Jesus's birthday comes from a mid-fourth-century almanac called the Philocalian Calendar. This places the celebration well before Constantine's conversion and during a time when Christians were cautious about connections to pagan practices. Therefore, the origins of Christmas can be traced back to the second half of the third century, suggesting it was not a pagan imitation.

Hippolytus of Rome, who lived until 235 CE, made a noteworthy claim in his commentary on the book of the prophet Daniel. He stated that Jesus was born eight days before the Kalends of January, which corresponds to December 25th. His assertion suggests that December 25th was considered the date of Jesus' birth during his time.

In the early 4th century, Christian texts like "De solstitiis" proposed that Jesus was born six months after John the Baptist, who, according to the text, was born on the summer solstice. This further reinforces the idea that December 25th was regarded as the birthdate of Jesus within early Christian tradition.

Sextus Julius Africanus, a prominent Christian historian of the early 3rd century, played a key role in the development of the Christian liturgical calendar, particularly with respect to the date of Christmas. His contributions are especially significant considering the context of his era, a time when Christian thought was still in its formative stages and subject to a myriad of cultural and religious influences.

Africanus is best known for his work "Chronographiae," which is one of the earliest attempts to create a chronological account of the history of the world from a Christian perspective. In this work, he proposed that the Annunciation, the event where the Angel Gabriel announced to the Virgin Mary that she would give birth to Jesus, occurred on March 25. Consequently, he deduced that the birth of Christ must have taken place on December 25. This calculation is based on the ancient Jewish belief that prophets died on the same date as either their birth or conception. Thus, linking the conception and death of Jesus to the same date, March 25, would naturally lead to the birth being placed nine months later, on December 25.

The date of Christmas on December 25 has often been linked to the Roman festival of Sol Invictus, or the "Unconquered Sun," which was established by Emperor Aurelian in A.D. 274, several decades after Africanus's death. This festival celebrated the winter solstice and the rebirth of the sun. Some historians have argued that the choice of December 25 for Christmas was influenced by this popular pagan festival, suggesting that the early Church may have sought to replace or overshadow pagan celebrations with a Christian holiday.

However, the argument by Africanus predates the establishment of Sol Invictus, indicating that the selection of December 25 as the birth of Christ was not merely a reactionary move against pagan traditions but had its own theological reasoning. This implies that the Christian identification of December 25 as the birth of Christ likely developed independently of Roman solstice celebrations.

It's important to note that the establishment of December 25 as the universal date for Christmas was a gradual process. In the early Christian Church, there was no consensus on the date of Christ's birth. Different communities celebrated it on various dates, including January 6 (still observed as Epiphany, marking the visit of the Magi, in some traditions). It wasn't until the 4th century, with the increasing influence of Rome in the Christian world, that December 25 began to gain widespread acceptance.

Sextus Julius Africanus's contribution to the dating of Christmas demonstrates an early Christian effort to define a sacred chronology, distinct yet emerging in a world where pagan and Christian traditions were often intertwined. His reasoning reflects the theological and symbolic considerations of early Christian thinkers rather than a mere adaptation of existing pagan festivals. The eventual universal acceptance of December 25 for Christmas highlights the complex interplay of theological, cultural, and historical factors in the formation of Christian liturgical practices.

Claims of Pagan Origins: A Late Development

Surprisingly, there is no historical record of early church fathers connecting Christmas to pagan festivals. The idea that Christmas grew out of pagan origins only emerged in the 12th century, when Dionysius bar-Salibi suggested a connection to Sol Invictus. It wasn't until much later, during the Enlightenment period, that scholars began popularizing the notion that early Christians retrofitted winter solstice festivals for their own purposes.

Why December 25?

The date of December 25 for Christmas is not arbitrary. In the East, Christmas is celebrated on January 6, and this variation suggests that the date was not chosen to mimic pagan celebrations. Instead, it likely has roots in a theological calculation. Early Christians believed that Jesus died on the same date as his conception. This belief was rooted in ancient Jewish traditions that tied significant events to specific times of the year. Therefore, December 25 as the birth of Jesus can be traced back to this theological connection rather than pagan influences.

In conclusion, the historical evidence suggests that Christmas did not originate as a pagan rip-off, as commonly believed. While there may be some synchronistic connections, the date of December 25 for Christ's birth likely has deeper theological roots. As a Greek historian-archaeologist columnist, it's crucial to scrutinize historical narratives and separate fact from fiction, even when it comes to beloved traditions like Christmas.

---

REFERENCES

Ancient Texts:

1. Clement of Alexandria's Works: Clement of Alexandria (150–215) is one of the early Christian writers who can provide insights into the absence of early Christmas celebrations. You may find his writings in various formats, including online translations.

2. Tertullian's Apologeticum: Tertullian (160–225) is another early Christian writer whose works can be referenced to examine early Christian perspectives on celebrations and holidays. "Tertullian's Apology" is a robust defense of Christianity, addressing the Roman Empire's accusations against Christians. Tertullian counters claims of immorality and social disruption by Christians, arguing that their conduct is ethical and peaceful. He criticizes Roman polytheism and moral standards, contrasting them with Christian virtues. Tertullian appeals for fairness and justice, emphasizing the rationality and moral superiority of Christian beliefs over Roman paganism and advocating for Christians' right to be judged fairly and without prejudice based on their beliefs.

3. Origen's Contra Celsus: Origen (165-264) was known for his intellectual contributions to early Christianity. His writings, particularly his critiques of pagan practices, can be valuable.

4. The Philocalian Calendar: This ancient almanac, mentioned in your article, can provide historical evidence of December 25 being associated with Christmas in the fourth century.

Modern Research:

1. "How December 25 Became Christmas" by Andrew McGowan: The article by Andrew McGowan from Yale Divinity School, mentioned in your article, is an excellent modern source that delves into the historical origins of Christmas.

2. "The Origins of Christmas" by Joseph F. Kelly: This book explores the history and development of Christmas celebrations, including discussions on their relationship to pagan festivals.

3. "Christmas: A Biography" by Judith Flanders: Judith Flanders' book offers an in-depth exploration of the history and evolution of Christmas traditions, shedding light on their ancient roots.

The Very First Alphabet Scripts of Eastern Mediterranean and Europe: Phoenician - Euboean - Etruscan

A script is any particular system of writing or the written means of human communication. It is also a kind of early human technology, a basic form of communication that began simply as lists of goods and evolved into a more sophisticated means of conveying thoughts and feelings, and this, in time, became the script in which the literature of the culture was set down.

The Phoenician alphabet

The Phoenician alphabet is an alphabet (more specifically, an abjad) known in modern times from the Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions found across the Mediterranean region.

The Phoenician alphabet is also called the Early Linear script (in a Semitic context, not connected to Minoan writing systems) because it is an early development of the pictographic Proto- or Old Canaanite script into a linear, alphabetic script, also marking the transfer from a multi-directional writing system, where a variety of writing directions occurred, to a regulated horizontal, right-to-left script. Its immediate predecessor, the Proto-Canaanite, Old Canaanite or early West Semitic alphabet, used in the final stages of the Late Bronze Age, first in Canaan and then in the Syro-Hittite kingdoms, is the oldest fully matured alphabet, thought to be derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs.

"Phoenician proper" consists of 22 consonant letters only, leaving vowel sounds implicit—in other words, it is an abjad—although certain late varieties use matres lectionis for some vowels. As the letters were originally incised with a stylus, they are mostly angular and straight, although cursive versions steadily gained popularity, culminating in the Neo-Punic alphabet of Roman-era North Africa. Phoenician was usually written right to left, though some texts alternate directions (boustrophedon).

Beginning in the 9th century BC, adaptations of the Phoenician alphabet thrived, including Greek, Old Italic, and Anatolian scripts. The alphabet's attractive innovation was its phonetic nature, in which one sound was represented by one symbol, which meant only a few dozen symbols to learn. The other scripts of the time, cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs, employed many complex characters and required long professional training to achieve proficiency, which restricted literacy to a small elite.

Another reason for its success was the maritime trading culture of Phoenician merchants, which spread the alphabet into parts of North Africa and Southern Europe. Phoenician inscriptions have been found in archaeological sites at a number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such as Byblos (in present-day Lebanon) and Carthage in North Africa. Later finds indicate earlier use in Egypt.

The alphabet had long-term effects on the social structures of the civilizations that came into contact with it. Its simplicity not only allowed its easy adaptation to multiple languages, but it also allowed the common people to learn how to write. This upset the long-standing status of literacy as an exclusive achievement of royal and religious elites—scribes who used their monopoly on information to control the common population.

The Euboean alphabet

The Euboean alphabet was a western variant of the early Greek alphabet, used between the 8th and 5th centuries BC. It was used in the island of Euboea (notably the cities of Eretria and Chalkis) and in related colonies in southern Italy, notably in Cumae and in Pithikoussai. It was through this variant that the Greek alphabet was transmitted to Italy, giving rise to the Old Italic alphabets, including Etruscan, and ultimately the Latin alphabet. Some of the distinctive features of Latin as compared to the standard Greek script are already present in the Euboean model. In Greece, this and other local variants were replaced by the standard Greek alphabet, which is based on eastern Ionic Greek variants from the 4th century BC.

Euboean alphabet tended to use certain variant forms of the standard letters, several of which also foreshadowed the forms adopted by the Italic scripts. Γ was written like a (rounded or pointed) Latin C. Δ was written with the left edge vertical and the other two sides oblique, like a pointed Latin D. Λ was often written more like a Latin L, with a rightward hook at the bottom. Π was often written with a rounded top, approaching the shape of Latin P (but without the curve touching the vertical stem in the middle). Ρ, in turn, often had a downward tail, resembling Latin R.

The Marsiliana abecedarium (ca. 700 BC) shows an archaic variant of the Etruscan alphabet practically identical to the Western Greek alphabet, except for the presence of a Ξ or Samek.

Apart from the omission of samek (Ξ) and the addition of ΥΧΦΨ, the alphabet is identical to the Phoenician alphabet.

The Etruscan alphabet

The Etruscan alphabet was the alphabet used by the Etruscans, an ancient civilization of central and northern Italy, to write their language from about 700 BC to sometime around 100 AD.

The Etruscan alphabet derives from the Euboean alphabet used in the Greek colonies in southern Italy, which belonged to the "western" ("red") type, the so-called Western Greek alphabet. Several Old Italic scripts, including the Latin alphabet, derived from it (or simultaneously with it).

The Etruscan alphabet originated as an adaptation of the Euboean alphabet used by the Euboean Greeks in their first colonies in Italy, the island of Pithekoussai, and the city of Cumae in Campania. In the alphabets of the West, X had the sound value [ks], and Ψ stood for [kʰ]; in Etruscan, X = [s], Ψ = [kʰ] or [kχ] (Rix 202–209).

The earliest known Etruscan abecedarium is inscribed on the frame of a wax tablet in ivory, measuring 8.8×5 cm, found at Marsiliana (near Grosseto, Tuscany). It dates from about 700 BC and lists 26 letters corresponding to contemporary forms of the Greek alphabet, including digamma, san, and qoppa, but not omega, which had still not been added at the time.

The shapes of the Archaic Etruscan and Neo-Etruscan letters had a few variants, used in different places and/or in different epochs. Notably, opposite letters were used for /s/ and /ʃ/, depending on the locality. Shown above are the glyphs from the Unicode Old Italic block, whose appearance will depend on the font used by the browser. These are oriented as they would be in lines written from left to right. Also shown are SVG images of variants shown as they would be written right to left, as in most of the actual inscriptions.

A two-millennia-old Coin Image of a Greek King end up being used on a Modern Afghan Banknote

Afghanistan’s Central Bank uses a coin of the Greco-Bactrian king Eucratides I as its seal and on their banknotes!

Let’s go back through Afghan and Greek history and find out how the modern Afghan notes use an image from a Greek hellenistic coin which was used in antiquity.

This is the seal of Da Afghanistan Bank, the central bank of Afghanistan established in 1939 (1318 in the Iranian/Afghan solar calendar). But alongside the name of the bank in Pashto, in Arabic script at the top and Latin script at the bottom, there’s a text in Ancient Greek, ‘ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΕΥΚΡΑΤΙΔΟΥ’, “Of the great king Eucratides.”

Eucratides was a Greek king of Bactria (roughly northern Afghanistan) in the second century BC (rough dates 170-145BC). What’s represented in the centre of the seal is in fact one of his coins, a silver tetradrachm of Eucratides with the same design.

The idea was to use the coin image as a way to signal improvement in Afghan image. The establishment of an Afghan central bank was part of a bigger project to modernize Afghanistan under the Musahibun regime of Zahir Shah (king of Afghanistan from 1933 to 1973). Taking as its models European nations and “advanced” Islamic countries like Iran and Turkey, Afghanistan was giving itself the institutions of a developed state. Responding to the wave of nationalism in the world of the 1930s, in the words of Robert D. Crews in his excellent book Afghan Modern, “Afghans faced the test of demonstrating their right to belong in this world of nation states by articulating a national language, culture and past” (p.156). This could take the form of national financial institutions, and also of discriminatory policies against non-Muslims, especially Jews (dangerous notions of Aryan ancestry were also in the air). But a 2,000-year-old coin image, too, contradictory as it may seem, could symbolize progress in thirties Afghanistan.

The explanation of this lies in the archaeological work undertaken in Afghanistan in the previous two decades. Archaeology had properly begun in Afghanistan with the agreement between King Amanullah (another modernizer) and the French government in 1922 to establish the Délégation Archéologique Française en Afghanistan (DAFA). By the late thirties, as Nile Green explains (“The Afghan discovery of Buddha: civilizational history and the nationalizing of Afghan antiquity,” International Journal of Middle  Eastern Studies 49 (2017), 47-70), the discoveries of French archaeologists at such sites as Begram and Hadda (of which the publications began to appear in numbers in the mid-thirties) were starting to secure the interest of the Afghan leadership. The National Museum of Afghanistan, which moved into its new premises in the administrative district of Darulaman in Kabul in 1931, was being turned, mainly by these French discoveries, into one of the richest collections in the world. In 1937, according to the French chargé d’affaires, “The excavations at Begram have been visited by several ministers … the king himself visited the exhibition mounted at the Kabul museum.”

We need to appreciate what a dramatic change this represented in Afghan attitudes to their past, an emphasis on pre-Islamic cultures, Buddhist as well as Greek, which superseded and sidelined Afghanistan’s Islamic heritage, hitherto the focus of Afghan historiography and national identity. This new emphasis was facilitated by the activities of DAFA, but it also represented Afghanistan’s attempt to align its own historical identity with what Green calls the “civilizational norms” of the developed world that it aspired to join. By highlighting its Greek heritage, Afghanistan could claim a share of the classical origins of Europe and the West. A state-owned bank represented civilization and modernity in the 1930s, but so did a coin with Greek writing on it.

Green’s article focuses on a key personality in these cultural developments, Ahmad Ali Kuhzad, an Afghan archaeologist who had worked with DAFA and subsequently in a series of Persian publications communicated the insights gained by the French into ancient Afghan history to the Afghan elite and beyond.

So that’s how Eucratides made it onto the seal of the State Bank, and it tells us a lot about Afghan aspirations in the 1930s.

The Unknown Achaean-Hittite Conflicts in Late Bronze Age!

Research on hittite inscriptions found in many prehistoric sites of the Hittite Empire (Bronze Age) shed light on a historical subject that is largely unknown to us, the military operations of Mycenaean (Achaean) Greeks on the coast of Anatolia (M Asia).

Mycenaean chariot warriors.

It seems that the so-called "Trojan War" known to us from the Homeric Epics is just an episode of a long war and an extensive dispute over the control of the Ionian coast between Achaeans, Hittites and many intermediate independent kingdoms.

Watch the interesting video of Wanax TV, as well as the other interesting subjects of the channel here.