DNA Study Sheds Light on the Heartland of Indo-European Languages

Research suggests a family of languages now spoken from Europe to India originated between the Caucasus and eastern Anatolia. But identity of first Indo-Europeans remains a mystery

A new DNA analysis, published on Thursday, August 26th, on 777 ancient genomes from across the so-called Southern Arc, namely Southern Europe and West Asia, redirects the cradle of Indo-Europeans and sheds light on the Proto-Greek prehistoric past.

The new study, published this Thursday, August 26, 2022 in Science, reports on genetic data extracted from 777 individuals who lived across the so-called Southern Arc, namely Southern Europe and West Asia. According to other more recent DNA data of ancient Anatolians, which raised new questions about the “spread” of Indo-European languages, it seems that Anatolians did not mix with steppe pastoralists during the early Bronze Age. It’s the only place where Indo-European-related languages were spoken even though there was no steppe ancestry.

Ancient Anatolian peoples spoke the now-extinct Anatolian languages of the Indo-European language family, which were largely replaced by the Greek language during classical antiquity as well as during the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods. The major Anatolian languages included Hittite, Luwian, and Lydian while other, poorly attested local languages included Phrygian, Palaic, Luwic, and Mysian.

Many partings, many meetings: How migration and admixture drove early language spread.

Westward and northward migrations out of the West Asian highlands split the Proto-Indo-Anatolian language into Anatolian and Indo-European branches. Yamnaya pastoralists, formed on the steppe by a fusion of newcomers and locals, admixed again as they expanded far and wide, splitting the Proto-Indo-European language into its daughter languages across Eurasia. Border colors represent the ancestry and locations of five source populations before the migrations (arrows) and mixture (pie charts) documented here.

The new Indo-European DNA research also shows that between five and seven thousand years ago there was a gradual increase of ancestry from the Caucasus in the Anatolian genome, probably by a series of migrations from the east, at the end of which about a third of the ancestry of Anatolians could be traced to somewhere in the Caucasus.

The fact that the same Caucasus component found in Anatolia comprises roughly fifty percent of the Yamnaya pastoralist genome further implicates the riddle of Indo-European languages. Given that this mysterious Caucasian link is the only ancestral commonality between the Yamnaya and the ancient Anatolians, it seems plausible that this enigmatic migration from the Caucasus brought the ancestral form of Indo-European to both of these peoples. Therefore, the homeland and the “first language” of Indo-Europeans must be placed somewhere in the Caucasus.

We must point out that these conclusions seem to primarily justify the eminent archaeologist Colin Renfrew and his Anatolian hypothesis, and they do line up quite well with contemporary archeological indications. The British archeologist compares the spread of the Indo-European languages to the spread of the Neolithic way of life from its Anatolian source in the seventh millennium BC (possibly the Caucasus).

Pylos Combat Agate” found in the Grave of the Griffin WarriorCredit: Photo Jeff Vanderpool. Courtesy

Renfrew also identifies this Neolithic demic diffusion with the spread of the Proto-Indo-European language and its subsequent differentiation into the daughter branches, i.e., the different Early Neolithic cultural phases across Europe.

The most interesting conclusion about prehistoric Greek populations comes from the new estimation of the Mycenaean steppe ancestry (about 1/10). The new study shows that this proportion is not uniform across the population. In fact, even among the elites, it was possible to find people who were not genetically related to Yamnaya (such as the genome of the so-called Griffin Warrior of Pylos).

According to experts, steppe migrants did not establish a rule over the natives and kept to themselves. Rather, they admixed with them, and there were still people without steppe ancestry with elite roles in mainland Greece, especially in Peloponnese. This means that during the later Mycenaean period in Greece, the new data suggest Yamnaya descendants had little impact on Greek social structure.

This explanation also once again confirms C. Renfrew and many other scholars, who have insisted throughout the last decades that the picture of the Proto-Indo-Europeans as warlike mounted nomads has been based not only on the misuse of linguistic paleontology but also on serious anachronism.

New DNA analysis shed light to Indo-European homeland

Credit: PeopleOfAr

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Detailed paleogenetic research sheds light on Southern Arc migration, farming, and language evolution.

In a trio of papers, published simultaneously in the journal Science, Ron Pinhasi from the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology and Human Evolution and Archaeological Sciences (HEAS) at the University of Vienna and Songül Alpaslan-Roodenberg from the University of Vienna and Harvard University, Iosif Lazaridis and David Reich at Harvard University—together with 202 co-authors—report a massive effort of genome-wide sequencing from 727 distinct ancient individuals with which it was possible to test longstanding archaeological, genetic and linguistic hypotheses. They present a systematic picture of the interlinked histories of peoples across the Southern Arc Region from the origins of agriculture, to late medieval times.

Credit: University of Vienna

The first article by the international team looked at the origins and dissemination of Indo-European and Anatolian languages. The Indo-Anatolian language family's ancestral home is thought to have been in West Asia, according to genetic evidence, with secondary dispersals of non-Anatolian Indo-Europeans from the Eurasian steppe. People with Caucasian origin came into Anatolia in the west and the steppe in the north during the first stage, which took place between 7,000 and 5,000 years ago. These people may have spoken Anatolian and Indo-European languages in their ancestry.

Around 5,000 years ago, Yamnaya steppe herders with Caucasus hunter-gatherer and Eastern hunter-gatherer heritage set off a series of migrations across Eurasia that may be traced to all currently spoken Indo-European languages (such as Greek, Armenian, and Sanskrit). Their southern excursions into the Balkans and Greece, as well as their eastern expansions across the Caucasus into Armenia, left a mark on the region's Bronze Age inhabitants.

The Yamnaya herders' descendants mixed differently with the local people as they grew. Several types of genetic evidence can be used to pinpoint how Indo-European-speaking immigrants from the steppe interacted with locals to create the Greek, Paleo-Balkan, and Albanian (Indo-European) languages in Southeastern Europe and the Armenian language in West Asia. The Yamnaya had a significant influence on Southeastern Europe, as individuals with nearly pure Yamnaya heritage arrived shortly after the Yamnaya migrations began.

The Southern Arc's Anatolia core region, where large-scale data offers a rich picture of change—and lack of change—over time, yields some of the most startling findings. According to the findings, Anatolia was not significantly affected by the Yamnaya migrations, in contrast to the Balkans and the Caucasus. Due to the absence of Eastern hunter-gatherer ancestors in Anatolia, in contrast to all other places where Indo-European languages were spoken, no connection to the steppe can be established for speakers of Anatolian languages (such as Hittite and Luwian).

The southern Caucasus was impacted numerous times, even before the Yamnaya migrations, in contrast to Anatolia's startling impermeability to steppe migrations. "I was surprised to learn that the Areni Chalcolithic people, who were discovered 15 years ago in the excavation I co-led, had ancestry from gene flow from the north to areas of the southern Caucasus more than 1,000 years before the Yamnaya expanded, and that this northern influence would disappear in the area before reappearing a few thousand years later. This demonstrates that there is still a lot of information to be learned through new digs and fieldwork in Eastern Western Asia "Ron Pinhasi says.

"Anatolia was home to varied communities descending from both local hunter-gatherers and eastern populations of the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and the Levant," states Songül Alpaslan-Roodenberg

"Variations of the same types of ancestry were shared by the inhabitants of the Marmara region, Southeastern Anatolia, the Black Sea, and the Aegean regions."

Credit: University of Vienna

The interconnections of the first farming societies

The second research project investigates the origins of the world's oldest Neolithic populations, which date to around 12,000 years ago. "The genetic findings support the idea that early farming groups had a network of pan-regional relationships. In addition, they offer fresh proof that the Neolithic transition was a difficult process that took place not just in one central region but also in Anatolia and the Near East, "Ron Pinhasi said.

It gives the first ancient DNA data for Pre-Pottery Neolithic farmers from the Tigris side of northern Mesopotamia, which is a critical region for the origins of agriculture and can be found in both eastern Turkey and northern Iraq. The island of Cyprus, which saw the earliest maritime migration of farmers from the eastern Mediterranean, also contains the first ancient DNA from Pre-Pottery farmers. Together with the first information from Neolithic Armenia, it also offers fresh information on early Neolithic farmers from the Northwest Zagros.

By filling in these gaps, the authors were able to examine the genetic history of these societies, for which archaeological research had previously documented intricate economic and cultural interactions but was unable to track mating practices or interactions that did not leave visible material traces. The findings demonstrate pre-Neolithic roots from hunter-gatherers in the Caucasus, Levant, and Anatolia, and they demonstrate that these early farming cultures created a continuity of lineage that mirrored the topography of West Asia. The findings also show at least two waves of migration from the Fertile Crescent's core to Anatolia's ancient farmers.

The historic period

The third piece demonstrates how ancient Mediterranean political systems maintained differences in lineage from the Bronze Age while remaining connected by migration. The findings indicate that while Italians before the Imperial period had a totally diverse distribution, the ancestry of those who resided in and around Rome during the Imperial period was nearly identical to that of Roman and Byzantine inhabitants from Anatolia. This shows that the heterogeneous but comparable population of the Roman Empire, both in its longer-lasting eastern component focused on Anatolia and in its shorter-lasting western part, was plausible drawn to a significant extent from Anatolian pre-Imperial sources.

"Our findings are rather unexpected considering that in a Science study I co-authored in 2019 on the genetic heritage of people from Ancient Rome, we discovered a cosmopolitan pattern that we initially believed to be specific to Rome. Now that we can see it, other parts of the Roman Empire were just as multicultural as Rome itself, "Ron Pinhasi argues.

Neolithic seal with bull heads found in Turkey

A unique seal incised with stylized bull heads facing each other has been unearthed at the Domuztepe Mound, a Late Neolithic settlement in southeast Turkey. The button-shaped stamp seal features two animal heads mirroring each other on the surface of an oval serpentine stone. Around the edge is a border of radiating straight lines.

Domuztepe is the largest known settlement of the Halaf culture, a farming society that occupied northern Mesopotamia and Syria between around 6100 B.C. and 5100 B.C. They are renown for the unusually high quality of pottery they produced from local clay. Their painted polychrome ceramics were so highly prized they spread throughout the region, likely traded by the elites. The pots were decorated with finely-executed geometric or animal designs in brown, red and/or black (both iron oxide pigments) against a buff background.

The Halaf culture is responsible for the earliest known stamp seals on the archaeological record. Halaf seals were typically simple circles or rectangles incised with intersecting grid lines and chevrons. One example in the Metropolitan Museum of Art is notable for having a zoomorphic shape believed to represent a hedgehog, but the surface design is still a simple grid with exes in each cell.

The newly-discovered seal employs a motif previously only found on pottery: the bull or buffalo head. The shape of the horns and head painted on the pottery is different from the design on the seal. It could be that one style is meant to represent domestic cattle and the other water buffalo, but they could also both be domestic bulls with two different, highly stylized designs.

[T]he bullheads visualized on different materials are mostly accepted as the representative of the species known as domestic cattle (Bos Taurus) in the Near East. On the other hand, it is possible that the species in the samples shaped both as a paint decoration on pottery and by scraping on seal impressions is a water buffalo (bos bubalis). Since archaeozoological studies have not been completed yet, it is premature to say that water buffalo was domesticated in the Eastern Mediterranean, where Domuztepe is located, in the 7th-6th millennium BC.

Traces of 9,300-year-old settlement unearthed near volcanic Cappadocia

Archaeologists have unearthed traces of a permanent settlement believed to date back at least 9,300 years during the latest excavations at Sırçalıtepe Mound in the central Niğde province of Türkiye, the head of the dig site told Anadolu Agency (AA) on Friday.

"We can say that this is the oldest settlement within the borders of Niğde province," said archaeologist Semra Balcı, who is leading the excavation team at Sırçalıtepe Mound.

Balcı, of Istanbul University, said her team had found bone and obsidian tools used in daily life, along with beads and other objects thought to be for ornamental purposes.

She added that the two samples they found had been radiocarbon dated, revealing they were 9,600-9,300 years old.

Initial surface surveys conducted at Sırçalıtepe Mound, located near sources of obsidian in the volcanic Cappadocia region, uncovered an obsidian working area, as well as the bone and stone tools.

With this year's dig season over, Balcı said she and her team would continue to analyze their findings in artifacts and new architectural field data in their workshops.

Noting that the dig also yielded specimens of oval arrowheads, she said: "Another important point is that no other site has so far been excavated with an obsidian working area and settlement together."

4,200-year-old hazelnuts, marble idols found in Turkey's Kütahya

During the excavations in Tavşanlı Mound, located in the central Turkish province of Kütahya, the remains of 4,200-year-old hazelnuts and marble idols were unearthed.

Dubbed the “Heart of Kütahya” over its shape detected through aerial footage, the Tavşanlı Mound, located in the namesake district, is being unearthed through the cooperation of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University (BŞEU), in the status of "President Decisive Excavation."

In the new period, excavations in the mound, which started two months ago under the direction of Erkan Fidan of the BŞEU Archeology Department, the remains of hazelnuts and marble idols became the latest findings unearthed at the layer dating back to 4,200 years ago.

Archaeologists evaluate findings as proof of a very close connection with Troy and Tavşanlı Mound during the Bronze Age.

8000 years old fingerprint and ceramic production workshop found in İzmir Ulucak Mound

It was understood that the structure unearthed during the ongoing excavations in the 8850-year-old Ulucak Mound (Ulucak Höyük), the oldest settlement of Izmir in the west of Turkey, is the oldest ceramic production workshop. Fingerprints of pottery masters who lived in the city 8000 years ago were also discovered on the dough used to make ceramics.

Prof. Dr. Ozlem Cevik, the excavation’s director, stated that the workshop is very important as it physically demonstrates the first specialization in ceramic production.

Ulucak Höyük is located in the Kemalpaşa district of İzmir. Trakya University Faculty of Letters Protohistory and Near Eastern Archaeology Faculty Member of the Department Professor Dr. Özlem Çevik took over the excavation directorship in 2009,  and the work carried out on the mound continues.

Prof. Dr. Özlem Çevik. Photo: DHA

During the excavations, it was discovered that Ulucak Mound was home to the Aegean Region’s first farmers. It was also understood that the first settlers built their homes on top of each other along the 7.5-meter cultural layer and settled in the same place for 1150 years without interruption.

A 7800-year-old female figurine was found on the mound recently days, which was used to increase abundance and fertility.

One of the oldest settlements of Western Anatolia Ulucak Mound,  ceramic production workshop, and the findings provided access to much new information.

It was noted that in the 100 square meters structure, which is thought to be the oldest ceramic production workshop in history, there are kilns in which ceramic pots were fired and many ground stones were used to grind hematite paint in the painting of ceramic pots.

Photo: DHA

Prof. Dr. Ozlem Cevik, the head of the excavation, said, “Historically, we know that the first ceramics were made 9 thousand years ago in a wide geography from Mesopotamia to the Aegean Region. When these first ceramics were made, they were probably produced by women in the household. A thousand years after the emergence of the first ceramics, it was assumed that these were made by pottery masters, based on the examinations made on the ceramics found in this wide geography that I mentioned. This workshop we found in Ulucak is important for the near east or world archeology. Because for the first time, there is physical proof that ceramics were made by experts.”

Specialization in Ceramic Production

Professor Özlem Cevik informing about the workshop:  “This structure is very different from houses. A place with 6-7 rooms. All stages of ceramic production are applied in these areas. n other words, the entire chain of ceramic production takes place, from the preparation of the dough to its shaping, from the use of the primer to the finishing. We can easily say that this is a ceramic production workshop. According to the analysis of the seed samples, we know from the radiocarbon datings that the structure was dated to 6 thousand BC, so this is an 8,000-year-old workshop. The workshop is very important as it physically demonstrates the first specialization in ceramic production in the history of humanity. This workshop is the oldest evidence of specialization in ceramic production” she said.

8000 years old fingerprints found in Ulucak Mound. Photo: DHA

Adding that fingerprints were found in the finds in the workshop, Cevik said, “Clay dough must be prepared before making ceramics. Workshop burned. In the dough we found, we saw that the fingerprints on it were solidified. The fingerprints and hands of people who touched it 8,000 years ago are thus preserved.”

Excavations at Ulucak Höyük continue with the support of the Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, İzmir Metropolitan Municipality, Kemalpaşa Municipality, and Kemalpaşa Organized Industrial Zone.

Cappadocia's underground city of 20,000 people

More than 85m beneath the famous fairy chimneys of Cappadocia lies a massive subterranean city that was in near-constant use for thousands of years.

(Image credit: Danm/Getty Images)

Violent gusts whipped loose soil into the air as I hiked through Cappadocia's Love Valley. Pink- and yellow-hued hillsides coloured the rolling landscape scarred with deep red canyons, and chimneystack rock formations loomed in the distance. It was arid, hot, windy and devastatingly beautiful. Millennia ago, this volatile, volcanic environment naturally sculpted the spires surrounding me into their conical, mushroom-capped shapes, which now draw millions of visitors to hike or hot-air balloon in the central Turkish region.

But beneath Cappadocia's crumbling surface, a marvel of equally gargantuan proportions lay hidden away for centuries; a subterranean city that could conceal the whereabouts of up to 20,000 inhabitants for months at a time.

The ancient city of Elengubu, known today as Derinkuyu, burrows more than 85m below the Earth's surface, encompassing 18 levels of tunnels. The largest excavated underground city in the world, it was in near-constant use for thousands of years, changing hands from the Phrygians to the Persians to the Christians of the Byzantine Era. It was finally abandoned in the 1920s by the Cappadocian Greeks when they faced defeat during the Greco-Turkish war and fled abruptly en masse to Greece. Not only do its cave-like rooms stretch on for hundreds of miles, but it's thought the more than 200 small, separate underground cities that have also been discovered in the region may be connected to these tunnels, creating a massive subterranean network.

According to my guide, Suleman, Derinkuyu was only "rediscovered" in 1963 by an anonymous local who kept losing his chickens. While he was renovating his home, the poultry would disappear into a small crevasse created during the remodel, never to be seen again. Upon closer investigation and some digging, the Turk unearthed a dark passageway. It was the first of more than 600 entrances found within private homes leading to the subterrestrial city of Derinkuyu.

Excavation began immediately, revealing a tangled network of underground dwellings, dry food storage, cattle stables, schools, wineries and even a chapel. It was an entire civilisation tucked safely underground. The cave city was soon spelunked by thousands of Türkiye's least claustrophobic tourists and, in 1985, the region was added to the Unesco World Heritage list.

Derinkuyu is made up of 18 levels of tunnels that burrow more than 85m underground (Credit: RalucaHotupan/Getty Images)

The city's exact date of construction remains contested, but Anabasis, written by Xenophon of Athens circa 370 BC, is the oldest written work that seems to reference Derinkuyu. In the book, he mentions Anatolian people, in or near the region of Cappadocia, living underground in excavated homes rather than the more popular cliffside cave-dwellings that are well known in the area.

According to Andrea De Giorgi, associate professor of classical studies at Florida State University, Cappadocia is uniquely suited to this kind of underground construction due to the lack of water in the soil and its malleable, easily mouldable rock. "The geomorphology of the region is conducive to the digging of underground spaces," he said, explaining that the local tuff rock would have been fairly easy to carve with simple tools like shovels and pickaxes. This same pyroclastic material was naturally forged into the fairy-tale chimneys and phallic spires jutting from the earth above ground.

Cappadocia is uniquely suited to this kind of underground construction due to the lack of water in the soil and its malleable, easily mouldable rock

But whom to credit with Derinkuyu's creation remains a partial mystery. The groundwork for the sprawling network of subterranean caves is often attributed to the Hittites, "who may have excavated the first few levels in the rock when they came under attack from the Phrygians around 1200 BC", according to A Bertini, an expert in Mediterranean cave dwellings, in his essay on regional cave architecture. Adding weight to this hypothesis, Hittite artefacts were found inside Derinkuyu.

However, the bulk of the city was likely built by the Phrygians, highly skilled Iron-age architects who had the means to construct elaborate underground facilities. "The Phrygians were one of Anatolia's most prominent early empires," explained De Giorgi. "They developed across western Anatolia around the end of the first millennium BC and had a bent for monumentalising rock formations and creating remarkable rock-cut facades. Though elusive, their kingdom spread to include most of western and central Anatolia, including the area of Derinkuyu."

Half-ton boulders could be rolled in place to close off the tunnels in times of invasion (Credit: Richard Beck/Getty Images)

Originally, Derinkuyu was likely used for the storage of goods, but its primary purpose was as a temporary haven from foreign invaders, with Cappadocia seeing a constant flux of dominant empires throughout the centuries. "The succession of empires and their impact on the landscapes of Anatolia explain the recourse to underground shelters like Derinkuyu," De Giorgi explained. "It was at the time of the [7th-Century] Islamic raids [on the predominantly Christian Byzantine Empire], however, that these dwellings were used to the fullest." While the Phrygians, Persians and Seljuks, among others, all inhabited the region and expanded upon the underground city in subsequent centuries, Derinkuyu's population swelled to its peak during the Byzantine Era, with nearly 20,000 residents living underground.

Today, you can experience the harrowing reality of life underground for just 60 Turkish lira (£2.80). As I descended into the musty, narrow tunnels, the walls blackened with soot from centuries of torch lighting, the unfamiliar sensation of claustrophobia began to set in. However, the ingenuity of the various empires that expanded upon Derinkuyu soon became apparent. Intentionally narrow, short hallways forced visitors to navigate the labyrinth of corridors and dwellings while stooped over and single file – obviously an inopportune position for intruders. Dimly lit by lamplight, half-ton circular boulders blocked doors between each of the 18 levels and were only moveable from the inside. Small, perfectly round holes in the centre of these hefty doors would have allowed residents to spear invaders while maintaining a secure perimeter.

"Life underground was probably very difficult," my guide Suleman added. "The residents relieved themselves in sealed clay jars, lived by torchlight and disposed of dead bodies in [designated] areas."

Each level of the city was carefully engineered for specific uses. Livestock was kept in stables nearest to the surface to reduce the smell and toxic gases produced by cattle, as well as provide a warm layer of living insulation for the cold months. The inner layers of the city contained dwellings, cellars, schools and meeting spaces. Identifiable by its unique barrel-vaulted ceilings, a traditional Byzantine missionary school, complete with adjacent rooms for study, is located on the second floor. According to De Giorgi, "the evidence for winemaking is grounded in the presence of cellars, vats for pressing and amphoras [tall, two-handled jars with a narrow neck]." These specialised rooms indicate that inhabitants of Derinkuyu were prepared to spend months beneath the surface.

Derinkuyu had many entrances, including more than 600 found within private homes (Credit: SVPhilon/Getty Images)

But most impressive is a complex ventilation system and protected well that would have supplied the entire city with fresh air and clean water. In fact, it's thought that the early construction of Derinkuyu centred around these two essential elements. More than 50 ventilation shafts, which allowed for natural airflow between the city's many dwellings and hallways, were distributed throughout the city to avoid a potentially fatal attack on their air supply. The well was dug more than 55m deep and could be easily cut off from below by the city inhabitants.

While Derinkuyu's construction was indeed ingenious, it's not the only underground city in Cappadocia. At 445 sq km, it's merely the largest of the 200 and counting underground cities beneath the Anatolian Plains. More than 40 of these smaller cities are three or more levels deep beneath the surface. Many are connected to Derinkuyu via carefully dug tunnels, some stretching as long as 9km. All of them are equipped with emergency escape routes in case an immediate return to the surface was necessary. But Cappadocia's subterranean secrets have not yet all been excavated. In 2014, a new and potentially even larger underground city was unearthed beneath the Nevsehir region.

Derinkuyu's living story came to a close in 1923 when the Cappadocian Greeks evacuated. More than 2,000 years after the city's likely creation, Derinkuyu was abandoned for the last time. Its existence was all but forgotten to the modern world until some errant chickens brought the subterranean city back into the light.

5,000-year-old goddess idol found in Western Turkey

An idol dating back 5,000 years has been unearthed in Turkey.

Believed to represent a plump goddess, the artifact was found in Yeşilova mound, the oldest human settlement area in the western province of Izmir where nearly 200 findings are unearthed every year.

Zafer Derin from the Archaeology Department at Ege University's Faculty of Letters, who is also the head of the excavation at Yeşikova mound, explained that the idol measures 7 centimeters (2.75 inches) and is cubical in structure, with a circular head and rectangular body.

A view of the idol found in Yeşilova Mound, Izmir, western Türkiye, Aug. 17, 2022. (DHA)

Noting that small-sized god or goddess statuettes are described as "idols" in polytheistic religions, Derin continued: "The idol can be interpreted as a two-dimensional worship object. Previously plumpy goddesses were depicted with an authoritarian appearance, holding animals next to them. With the change and abstraction of these goddesses' depictions, they started to be presented like the idol that we have recently unearthed. These types of idols are seen as of the Neolithic period."

Highlighting that the marble idol was used to bring fertility and health to the person carrying it, Derin said that the artifact would be sent to the Izmir Archaeology Museum.

Hittite are the Earliest Surviving Detailed Bibliographical Entries

Cuneiform tablets discovered at Hattusas (Hattusa), capital of the Hittite Empire in the Bronze Age, near modern Boğazkale, Turkey, contain detailed bibliographical entries.

Apology of Hattusili III

Collection catalogue tablet from the Hattusas Palace Archives. Hattusa, Turkey, photo: Edouard d'Erasme

The Apology of Hattusili III is a Hittite text which features King Hattusili III (1267-1237 BC) recounting how, under the benevolent protection of the goddess Shaushga , he rose to the head of the kingdom of the Hittites. It is a document of major interest for understanding the history and historiography of the Hittite Empire in the 13th century BC. J.-C.

The singularity of this text, which is one of the only Hittite texts belonging to the genre of royal apologetics 2 , is explained by the exceptional circumstances which saw Hattusili come to power. The younger son of King Mursili II , Hattusili was not destined to become ruler of a kingdom where power passes from father to eldest son; he should have remained a secondary character at court and stood aside before his nephew Urhi-Teshub. However, this is not what happened: after a civil war, the legitimate claimant, Urhi-Teshub, found himself exiled, while Hattusili became Great King of the Hittites. This violent rise to power had every chance of passing for a usurpation; therefore it had to be legitimized and justified. This is what the editor of this text, which the moderns call, in the absence of an original title, the Apology of Hattusili III, used .

The text consists of fourteen paragraphs and extends over two tablets 3 . Emmanuel Laroche listed it as the 81st text (CTH 81) of his Catalog of Hittite Texts . The specimens that are at our disposal, in a more or less fragmentary state, have all been discovered in the eastern stores of the Great Temple (Temple 1) of Hattusa , capital of the Hittite kingdom ( approx . 18th – 12th century BC). The text is largely based on manuscript KUB I 1 5 .

"Each entry begins by giving the number of tablets that made up the work being recorded, just as modern catalogues give the number of volumes in a mult-volume publication. The entry identifies the work itself by giving the title, which may take the form of citing its first line, or by giving a capsule description of the contents. Then it tells whether the table marked the end of the work or not. At times the entry includes the name of the author or authors, or adds other useful information.

"In addition to noting missing tablets, the entries now and then provide information about shelving. There is an entry, for example, which in listing a work that happens to be in two tablets notes that 'they do not stand upright'; presumably, in the part of the palace holdings represented by this catalogue, most tablets were stored on edge while these two, exceptionally, lay flat.

[…] The catalogue, it would seem, was of one particular collection that, to judge from the contents, was for use by the palace clergy. It would have been an invaluable tool: any priest who needed a ritual for a given problem, instead of picking up tablet after tablet to read the colophon if there was one, or some lines of text if there was not, had only to run an eye over the entries in the catalogue. It was a limited tool; the order of the entries is more or less haphazard (alphabetization, for example, lay over a millennium and a half in the future) and they give no indication of location. But it was, no question about it, a significant step beyond the simple listing of titles of the Nippur tablets. 

"The finds at Hattusas, in short, reveal the development of procedures for organizing a collection of writings. The palace holdings were certainly extensive enough to require them; the catalogue alone, representing as we have seen, just the clergy's working library, lists well over one hundred titles."

• (Casson, Libraries in the Ancient World [2001] 5-8).

A Special structure Contemporary to Göbeklitepe found at Gre Fılla Höyük in Eastern Turkey

Pit-bottomed structures dating to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period were found at Gre Fılla Höyük (Gre Fılla Mound) in the province of Diyarbakir in eastern Turkey. It was determined that the steles found in one of these buildings were contemporary with Göbeklitepe.

Excavations have been carried out in the mound since 2018, under the chairmanship of the Diyarbakır Museum Directorate, under the scientific consultancy of Kocaeli University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Archeology Department Head Prof Dr. Ayşe Tuba Ökse.

During the ongoing excavations in the mound, the remains and religious and social living areas of societies that lived in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic Period (PPNA) were determined. In this settlement, which dates back 11,000 to 12,000 years, excavations continued for four years, revealing the finding of the oldest settled communities.

During the excavations carried out in the mound, it was determined that the oldest settlement started in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic Period, and Ambar Höyük and Kendale Hecala, a few hundred meters away, were populated in the Early Neolithic Age.

In this mound, where the oldest known settlement in Diyarbakır was seen, it was observed that first round-planned shelters were used, and then the settlement became narrow-planned.

Prof Dr. Ayşe Tuba Ökse said that three different pit structures with a diameter of almost 10 meters were unearthed.

Photo: AA

“There were steles in one of the pit structures that are contemporary with Göbeklitepe. There were 4 steles in them to carry the roof. According to the artifacts, we can say that a certain amount of ritual behavior is exhibited here. We can define it as common usage areas where a belief and social life coexist. We don’t want to call them temples directly. Because we don’t have that much data yet, it is more appropriate to say that these are special structures. Just like in Göbeklitepe.”

Stating that they have excavated two main periods, one of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic and one of the Late Antique Age graveyards, Ökse says that they can define these areas as areas where the people around them can socialize collectively and where they can perform their rituals in the context of belief.

Özlem Ekinbaş Can, a doctoral student at the Department of Archeology at Kocaeli University, who was part of the excavation team, said that Gre Fılla could be a symbol for the region for the Tigris line, just as Göbeklitepe is a symbol for the Euphrates line.

Özlem Ekinbaş Can said, “It is our duty to somehow carry future the 11,000-year-old structures that have survived from the past to the present.”

Can also added that the altars with figures found inside one of the pit structures were delivered to the museum.

During the excavations that have been going on for 4 years, 2 thousand 687 artifacts dating back to 7 thousand BC until today were unearthed.

By Leman Altuntaş4 August 2022, ARKEONEWS

The World's Oldest Mirrors Found in Neolithic Çatalhöyük Site!

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Unearthing the Mysteries of Çatalhöyük: Obsidian Mirrors and Egalitarianism

In the realm of archaeology, it is the unexpected discoveries that often leave us in awe of our ancient predecessors. Such is the case with the polished obsidian mirrors found at the Neolithic site of Çatalhöyük in central Anatolia. These artifacts not only shed light on the technological prowess of our ancestors but also raise intriguing questions about their purpose and significance.

The Significance of Çatalhöyük

Çatalhöyük, nestled in the heart of Central Anatolia, is not just an ancient settlement but a testament to the remarkable achievements of human civilization. For half a century, archaeologists have been meticulously excavating this site, unveiling its secrets layer by layer. In the latest excavation, two rare obsidian mirrors were unearthed in a tomb, shedding new light on this intriguing archaeological wonder.

Çatalhöyük holds a special place in history as the first city established in the Near East. At a time when many societies were still nomadic, Çatalhöyük's residents, numbering around 8,000, had already embraced urban life. This ancient settlement, with its egalitarian social structure, has been a subject of fascination for historians and archaeologists alike.

Çatalhöyük's recent inclusion on UNESCO's list of World Cultural Heritage sites is a testament to its historical significance. This prestigious recognition is expected to attract a significant increase in visitors, further illuminating the mysteries of this ancient settlement.

The Enigmatic Obsidian Mirrors

One of the most remarkable discoveries in the recent excavation was the unearthing of two rare funerary gift mirrors made of obsidian, a volcanic rock. These mirrors not only highlight the advanced craftsmanship of the inhabitants but also raise questions about their cultural and spiritual significance.

Turkish woman using an Early Neolithic obsidian mirror

Obsidian, a material known for its exceptional sharpness, was a valuable resource in ancient times. The use of obsidian mirrors as funerary gifts suggests a deep-rooted belief system related to the afterlife. Were these mirrors meant to guide the deceased in the afterworld, or did they serve another purpose?

Çatalhöyük is home to several obsidian mirrors, with examples held in the Archaeological Museum of Konya and the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara. Unfortunately, dim lighting and glass cases make it challenging to discern the details of their fabrication. Some mirrors in storage at the Konya museum, upon closer inspection, exhibited slight convexity and signs of post-manufacturing usage.

Highly polished obsidian mirrors. Çatalhöyük, 6000-5500 BC. Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara. From Wikimedia Commons

The Purpose of Obsidian Mirrors

The common belief is that women used these mirrors to apply makeup, according to James Mellaart, the first excavator at the site. However, their scarcity and alternative theories suggest a broader range of uses. Some propose practical functions such as illuminating rooms, starting fires, creating a compact seasonal calendar, or signaling. Meanwhile, spiritual purposes, like viewing one's soul or performing special rites, are also considered.

Recent excavations at Çatalhöyük, under the direction of the University of Cambridge's Ian Hodder, have not yielded new mirrors. Nevertheless, the mystery surrounding their purpose continues to captivate archaeologists and historians alike.

Neolithic mirrors of obsidian from Çatalhöyük. From Wikimedia Commons

Egalitarianism at Its Core

One of the most captivating aspects of Çatalhöyük is its egalitarian social structure. In a world where hierarchies and governing classes are common, Çatalhöyük stands out as an exception. No artifacts suggesting hierarchical order or privileged groups have been discovered. The question that continues to intrigue scholars is how these people maintained peace and equality for 1,400 years.

The georadar results reinforce the idea of a harmonious society. Houses, though displaying minor differences in wall shapes and motifs, lack the indicators of a governor or a privileged class. There are no traces of special ceremonial fields or mass violence. Instead, the evidence suggests that Çatalhöyük's residents lived in peace and harmony, a testament to their unique social organization.

The obsidian mirrors of Çatalhöyük offer a glimpse into the craftsmanship and ingenuity of ancient civilizations. Crafting these mirrors required no technological innovation, yet the skill and dedication it demanded are undeniable. As we contemplate the purpose of these mirrors, we are reminded of the enigmatic nature of our past and the enduring allure of archaeology.

In the end, the mirrors of Çatalhöyük not only reflect our history but also our enduring fascination with the mysteries of the past.

Thermal Heating used in Ancient city of Sardis

The ancient city of Sardis in the western province of Manisa, where gold and silver money was printed and used for the first time in history, has attracted interest for its sewage system and thermal system used for heating in shops set up thousands of years ago.

The Salihli Tourism Association Honorary Chairman Researcher Mustafa Uçar said geothermal heating was used in the Roman era, and that the mathematician Thales, who came to Sardis in 600 B.C., built the sewage system in the city.

“They most likely started using geothermal heating during their reconstruction of the city after the big earthquake in the Roman era. There are small pools in some shops and houses. The Romans provided cold drinking water and thermal hot water for the city in certain hours. Those living in the city made backup for water in their pools,” he said. 

“In the same way, in addition to the houses, there are thick water pipes made of baked clay that rise up in the walls in the places where the shops are located. Thermal water passes through these pipes to fill the pool behind the main building of gymnasium. At the same time, they fill the pools of houses and shops. Because the water is in motion, the houses are heated. Sardis was the first city that used thermal water for heating,” said Uçar. 

City infrastructure built before Christ 

Uçar said the ancient city of Sardis was an important city centuries ago, adding that scientists used to come to the city and were supported by kings. 

“In 600 B.C., famous mathematician Miletos Thales came to Sardis and dried up the marshland north of the city. In the present day, the farmers who have found the pipes in their fields tell a story to highlight the richness of people living in that era. The story is that they milked animals in the mountains and sent the milk to the cities through these pipes so the queen could take a milk bath. The pipes found by farmers are the pieces of the sewage and drainage system built by Thales. They poured the marsh water here to the Gediz River and created yielded fields. In short, maybe Sardis is the first city in history whose infrastructure was built in the 600s B.C.,” said Uçar. 

Sardis 

Situated in the area of Sart in Manisa’s Salihli district, Sardis was home to many civilizations between the seventh century B.C. and the early Byzantine era. 

The capital of the Lydian Kingdom in the ancient age, the city became rich thanks to agriculture, stockbreeding, trade and gold mining. 

Sardis was also one of the Seven Churches of Revelation that played an important role in the growth of Christianity, while artifacts that have been unearthed there are now displayed at the Manisa Museum.

Aizanoi's Unique Theater-Stadium: Exploring the Confluence of Ancient Culture and Sport

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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In the ancient world, grand structures and edifices served not just as expressions of architectural prowess but also as centers of community, culture, and entertainment. The theater and the stadium were two such central structures, each with their own distinctive purposes and architectural nuances. However, one site stands apart in the way it combines these two unique entities. This place is the Aizanoi, located in present-day Avdarhisar, Turkey, with its spectacular, side-by-side complex of a theater and a stadium, a rare combination that is said to be unique in the ancient world.

Aizanoi: A Cultural Landmark of Antiquity

The Aizanoi, settled around 3000 BC, is a landmark of immense historical significance. The city reached its zenith in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD under Roman rule, when many of its most iconic structures, including the theater-stadium complex, were built. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2022, Aizanoi offers an extraordinary glimpse into the past, with the theater and stadium standing as testaments to the city's rich cultural heritage.

• Origins and Early Settlements

Aizanoi's beginnings are deeply rooted in the Bronze Age, which extended from about 3300 BC to 1200 BC. The region that would eventually become Aizanoi was inhabited by various cultures during this period. Its favorable geographical position near the River Penkalas (today known as the Kocaçay) offered abundant resources, making it an ideal location for early settlements.

While archaeological evidence from the Bronze Age in Aizanoi is sparse, the area was certainly inhabited during this era. Bronze Age cultures in the region were known for their metalwork, ceramics, and the development of early writing systems. Unfortunately, due to the extensive Roman and later constructions, much of the Bronze Age artifacts and structures in Aizanoi have been lost or remain undiscovered.

In front of the temple, formerly part of the acroterion , stands a big bust of a female. It seems to have been her that led to the conclusion the temple was dedicated to both Zeus and Sibyl.

Author Dosseman

• The Development of Aizanoi

Aizanoi flourished as a city under the Phrygian and, later, the Hellenistic periods. But it reached its zenith during the Roman era, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. The city became a crucial economic and cultural hub, known for its production of grain, wine, and wool.

Aizanoi was adorned with grand structures, including temples, bridges, baths, and the unique theater-stadium complex, reflecting the city's prosperity. The Temple of Zeus in Aizanoi, one of the best-preserved temples in Anatolia, showcases the city's significance during this period.

• Post-Roman Aizanoi and Modern Rediscovery

Following the decline of the Roman Empire, Aizanoi became part of the Byzantine Empire and later fell under Seljuk and Ottoman rule. Over centuries, the ancient city was largely forgotten and eventually buried under layers of earth until the 19th century, when European archaeologists began to excavate and rediscover its historical significance.

The city was rediscovered by European travelers in 1824 and surveyed and identified between the years of 1830 and 1840. The scientific excavations within Aizanoi were launched in 1926 by D. Krencker and M. Schede on behalf of the German Archeological Institute, and presently the excavations are being carried out by Pamukkale University.

The city of Aizanoi offers a fascinating glimpse into the progression of human civilizations, from its Bronze Age roots to its peak in Roman times. Despite many of its ancient secrets remaining shrouded in mystery, the city's unique architectural gems, like the theater-stadium complex, provide invaluable insights into the cultural and societal practices of antiquity. The ongoing archaeological efforts hold the promise of revealing even more about Aizanoi's significant past.

At some distance from the temple there are several burial stones and similar monuments displayed. This is a view from that area.

Author Dosseman

Aizanoi's Unique Theater-Stadium Complex

The theater and stadium of Aizanoi are intricately connected structures, built adjacent to each other and separated only by a colonnaded street. This union is rare, as these two types of buildings were typically separate, serving distinctive purposes and catering to different types of crowds.

The theater, a semi-circular structure built in the traditional Roman style, could house approximately 13,000 spectators. Decorated with finely carved stone seats, the theater served as a focal point for cultural and social activities, hosting performances that ranged from tragedies and comedies to musical recitals. The theatrical performances often reflected society's values, fears, and aspirations and played a crucial role in civic life.

Adjacent to this lies the stadium, designed for athletic competitions and games. A long, U-shaped track encloses a field used for various sports, including chariot races, wrestling, and running races. Capable of accommodating up to 20,000 spectators, the stadium's design is influenced by Hellenistic models, aligning with the Greek ideal of a healthy mind in a healthy body.

 

A masterpiece of architectural design

The theater and stadium that make up the entertainment and cultural complex are situated in Aizanoi's northern region. It represents the significance of the city and the prosperity of its citizens in earlier times. The theater and stadium in Aizanoi were constructed next to one another, creating a complex that is thought to be one of a kind in antiquity. The staging structure divides the two. Excavations and study conducted between 1982 and 1990 revealed that the building's construction began in 160 AD and continued through the middle of the third century AD. Many inscriptions were discovered and restored to their original locations while repairs were being made to the eastern side of the stadium's entrance. The fact that M. Apuleius was named in the inscriptions of the main bridge and made a significant contribution to the construction of this complex is revealed by these inscriptions.

The stadium's seating rows are polygonal, therefore the construction widens in the middle. There is a door on the western side, where it is widest. The only façade of the stadium that faces the theater is a marble-covered wall. This is also the rear of the stage in a theater. The marble fragments may still be seen today in the stadium's north. This façade wall's low pedestal has a Doric design. There are two levels, and the tall Attika floor with an arch is located on top. The theater's stage was adorned with priceless marble ornamentation. Throughout history, there have been numerous earthquakes that caused these decorations to fall upon the seated rows. The building was initially constructed with only one story, according to researchers who looked at the marble carvings on the stage. As the stadium was later expanded, a second storey was constructed. The front of the structure, composed of cut limestone, had a relatively tiny percentage of the marble components that were still in place. These broken marble fragments include sections of a frieze that shows a hunting scene.

According to estimates, the stadium could hold another 13,500 spectators, while the theater could hold 20,000. Yet, the architectural design that allowed them to be built adjacent to one another, forming an entertainment complex, is what makes this dual structure special, not its size. The stage building separates the theater from the stadium, which is next to it. It is a singular solution since archaeologists have not discovered a similar one from prehistoric times anywhere else in the world.

Regrettably, both structures were severely destroyed by the periodic earthquakes. Only a portion of the theater's audience and stage have been retained in this instance. The bottom level of the theater frequently floods in the spring. A intact portion of the wall with carved medallions bearing the names of the winners may be seen on the right side of the stadium when viewed from the main road.

The Significance of the Adjacency

The proximity of these two structures in Aizanoi is an architectural marvel, symbolizing the coexistence of different forms of entertainment in antiquity. The construction of such a complex would have required not just a significant investment of resources but also a certain vision that appreciated and valued both the cultural and physical elements of entertainment.

Moreover, the combined complex could have facilitated larger gatherings and events, including city-wide festivals, where the activities might have ranged from theatrical performances to sporting events. It's a testament to the city's organizational capabilities, suggesting an advanced level of societal development.

The theater-stadium complex of Aizanoi is indeed unique in the ancient world. It paints a vivid picture of a city where art, culture, and athleticism coexisted, enriching society. It's an extraordinary testament to the architectural ingenuity and societal structures of the time, providing insights into a past that celebrated diversity and inclusivity in its entertainment forms.

Today, the Aizanoi stands as a symbol of our collective heritage, a testament to the ancient world's architectural prowess, and an invitation to revisit and appreciate the complexities and grandeur of the past.

The Spectacular Lycian Rock-Hewn Tombs: A Testament to Unique Architecture

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Nestled along the picturesque Turquoise Coast of southwest Anatolia (what is modern-day Turkey) and eastern Greek islands, the ancient Lycian civilization has left a breathtaking legacy carved into the very face of the landscape. The Lycian rock-hewn tombs, dating back to the 4th century BC, are a testament to the exceptional artistry and engineering prowess of this once-thriving society. These tombs, adorned with intricate facades and boasting extraordinary architectural designs, offer a glimpse into the rich history and culture of the Lycians, who considered their final resting place as important as their lives.

The Lycian Civilization

The Lycians were a unique civilization that inhabited the region now known as the Teke Peninsula in southwestern Turkey. They were an independent and proud people, with their own language and writing system, known as Lycian script. The Lycians were a seafaring people, known for their fierce resistance against invaders and their well-developed democratic system. They existed from around 2000 BC until they were eventually assimilated by the Greeks and the Romans.

The region's rugged terrain, with its numerous bays and natural harbors, provided natural defenses against invaders and enabled the Lycians to maintain their independence for centuries. The Lycian language belonged to the Luwian subgroup of the Anatolian language family. It is primarily known through inscriptions found on various monuments and artifacts. The Lycians used their own unique script, derived from the Luwian hieroglyphic script, which was later adapted into a more simplified alphabetic system.

Around 200 BC, the Lycian language vanished and was replaced by ancient Greek. Although the Lycian language became extinct, many of its inscriptions have been deciphered, offering valuable insights into Lycian society and culture.

The Lycians were known for their well-developed democratic system, which was organized into a federation of city-states referred to as the Lycian League. Each member city had its own local government and was represented in a central assembly, which made decisions on matters of common interest, such as defense and foreign policy. This political structure allowed the Lycians to maintain a certain level of autonomy and resist external threats, despite their relatively small size.

Lycian religion was polytheistic, sharing many gods and goddesses with neighboring civilizations such as the Hittites and Greeks. Some of the primary deities worshiped by the Lycians included Leto, Apollo, and Artemis, who were revered as protective and benevolent figures. The Lycians also had their own indigenous gods, such as the mountain god Sandas and the goddess Kubaba. Religious practices included temple worship, animal sacrifices, and elaborate burial rituals, as evidenced by the numerous rock-hewn tombs found in the region.

Lycian art and architecture were heavily influenced by neighboring cultures, such as the Greeks and Persians, while still maintaining a distinct Lycian style. The most iconic remnants of Lycian architecture are the rock-hewn tombs, which showcase a variety of styles, including house-style, temple-style, sarcophagus, and pillar tombs. Other notable examples of Lycian architecture include the ancient cities of Xanthos, Myra, and Patara, which feature well-preserved ruins, including temples, theaters, and city walls.

Lycian tombs differ from Hellenistic tradition in that they frequently blend in with cities, demonstrating Lycia's ties to eastern traditions, whereas in Hellenistic culture, the dead were buried outside of livable areas (often flanking main roads into the cities).

Lycian Rock-Hewn Tombs: A Unique Architectural Marvel

The Lycian rock-hewn tombs are carved directly into the sheer cliff faces and rock formations of the region, combining the natural beauty of the landscape with human artistry. These tombs come in various styles, reflecting the architectural diversity of the Lycian civilization.

• House-style tombs: These tombs resemble traditional Lycian houses, with a rectangular shape and a pitched roof. They often feature intricately carved friezes and ornamental details, such as geometric patterns, animals, and mythological scenes.

• Temple-style tombs: Inspired by ancient Greek temple architecture, these tombs have a distinct pediment, columns, and a porch-like structure. The best example of this style is the Amyntas Rock Tomb in Fethiye, which offers a stunning view of the city and the surrounding bay, the Royal Tomb at Pinara and the Painted Tomb at Myra. This temple-style tomb is not exclusive to Lycia and can be found in Caunos (some impressive examples can be found in the town of Dalyan) and other regions of Anatolia.

• Sarcophagus tombs: These tombs are characterized by a free-standing sarcophagus, often elevated on a pedestal or platform. The sarcophagus itself is elaborately decorated with reliefs and inscriptions, while the tomb's roof imitates the curved shape of a traditional Lycian wooden coffin.

• Pillar tombs: Unique to Lycian architecture, these tombs consist of a tall, slender pillar with a sarcophagus placed on top. The most famous example is the Harpy Tomb in Xanthos, where the sarcophagus is adorned with relief carvings of mythical creatures called Harpies.

The Purpose and Symbolism of the Tombs

The Lycians believed that their deceased ancestors played a crucial role in their lives and their connection to the afterlife. The rock-hewn tombs were designed to honor and protect the souls of the deceased, allowing them to maintain their status and wealth in the afterlife. The elaborate and monumental nature of these tombs is a reflection of the importance of the individual buried within and their role within Lycian society.

Their honored dead were buried in geographically high places like cliffsides to give them a "higher" location and make them closer to "heaven," as they also believed that their dead were carried to the afterlife by magical winged creatures that resembled sirens.

All Anatolian cultures created impressive monuments for their dead that were connected to ancestor worship. The soft limestone in the area is likely what helped the Lycians perfect this form of art. The Lycian people's stonemasonry is of note, and it plays a particularly important role in the creation of tombs.

Their fascinating funerary monuments can still be seen all over the landscape of Lycia today. The most recent count found 1,085 examples that are still in tact, with rock-cut tombs being the most prevalent type. The quantity and caliber of the tombs in Lycia are legendary.

Lycia is not the only place in the Mediterranean where rock-cut tombs have been discovered; others include the Palestinian and Nabatean region, Cyrenaica, eastern Anatolian Urartu, the Kurdish border region between Iran and Iraq, the area around Persepolis in Iran, Hegra in Saudi Arabia, and Beni Hassan in Egypt. These locations all have one thing in common: their geographic location, as this type of tomb is typically found in areas with steep cliffs and deep ravines.

Preservation and Tourism

Today, the Lycian rock-hewn tombs are a significant tourist attraction along the Turquoise Coast, drawing visitors from around the world to marvel at their unique architecture and immerse themselves in the ancient history of the region. The Greek and Turkish governments, as well as international organizations, have taken measures to preserve these invaluable historical sites, ensuring that they will continue to captivate and inspire future generations.

The Lycian rock-hewn tombs represent a mesmerizing fusion of artistic expression, architectural innovation, and cultural beliefs. As these ancient marvels continue to captivate and inspire generations of visitors, they stand as a timeless tribute to the extraordinary legacy of the Lycian civilization and the enduring power of human creativity.

The Letoon Trilingual Stele: An Interlingual Greek-Lycian-Aramaic Inscription

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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In the annals of history, the discovery of multilingual inscriptions has often been the key to unlocking the mysteries of extinct cultures and languages. One such monumental find is the Letoon Trilingual Stele, an ancient stone tablet inscribed with texts in Greek, Lycian, and Aramaic. This impressive artifact sheds light on the sociopolitical dynamics and intercultural exchanges of its time.

Historical Background and Location

Nestled in modern-day Turkey's Lycia region, Letoon was a significant religious sanctuary dedicated to the goddess Leto and her twins, Apollo and Artemis. The sanctuary's ruins bear witness to the rich history of Anatolia, with its evolving pantheon and varying rulers. The Letoon Trilingual Stele was unearthed within this sanctuary, pointing to the site's importance as a hub of religious and perhaps political activity.

The Letoon trilingual, or Xanthos trilingual, is an inscription in three languages: standard Lycian, or Lycian A; Greek; and Aramaic, covering the faces of a four-sided stone stele called the Letoon Trilingual Stele, discovered in 1973 during the archeological exploration of the Letoon temple complex (devoted to the goddess Leto). It was created when Lycia was under the sway of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.

Although the use of the term "Letoon" with regard to the inscription and the stele is unequivocal, there is no standard name for either. Xanthos trilingual is sometimes used, which is to be distinguished from Xanthos trilingual, meaning the Xanthos stele. However, sometimes the Xanthos stele is used for the Letoon trilingual stele as well as for the tomb at Xanthos. Moreover, the term Xanthos trilingual (Lycian A, Lycian B, and Greek) is sometimes used of the tomb at Xanthos. In the latter two cases, only the context can provide clues as to which stele is meant. The Aramaic inscription is known as KAI 319.

Given its location in a religious sanctuary, the stele might also shed light on syncretic religious practices or shared religious narratives across Greek, Lycian, and Aramaic-speaking communities.

The Inscriptions: A Linguistic Tapestry

1. Greek: The language of Homer and Plato, Greek, was widely spoken and understood across the Mediterranean. The Greek inscription on the stele reaffirms the extensive Hellenistic influence across Anatolia, particularly in major religious centers like Letoon.

2. Lycian: As with the Xanthian Obelisk, the presence of the Lycian language, indigenous to the Lycia region, underscores the cultural identity of the local populace. Lycian inscriptions often provide crucial clues to the socio-religious practices and governance of ancient Lycia.

3. Aramaic: The real surprise on the stele is Aramaic, a Semitic language primarily associated with ancient Mesopotamia and the Levant. Its presence on the stele highlights the far-reaching trade, diplomatic, and perhaps migratory patterns, emphasizing Anatolia's role as a crossroads of cultures.

Implications of the Trilingual Inscription

The stele serves multiple purposes.

Linguistic Decoding: Similar to the Rosetta Stone's role in decoding Egyptian hieroglyphics, multilingual inscriptions provide a means to decipher and cross-reference languages. In this case, the Lycian text, juxtaposed with its Greek and Aramaic counterparts, offers deeper insights into its structure and vocabulary.

Historical Insights: The confluence of three languages on a single stele hints at a period of cultural mingling. This could have been due to trade, shared governance, diplomatic alliances, or a mix of these factors.

Religious Significance: Given its location in a religious sanctuary, the stele might also shed light on syncretic religious practices or shared religious narratives across Greek, Lycian, and Aramaic-speaking communities.

The inscription is a public record of a decree authorizing the establishment of a cult, with references to the deities and provisions for officers in the new cult. The Lycian requires 41 lines; the Greek, 35; and the Aramaic, 27. They are not word-for-word translations, but each contains some information not present in the others. The Aramaic is somewhat condensed.

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Summary of the text

• Lines 1-5 of the Lycian text date the inscription to the government of Pixodaros.

• Lines 5-8: the Xanthians introduce a cult for two gods, "the Kaunian Ruler and King Arkesimas".

• Lines 9-11: a certain Simias is made priest, his priestship will be hereditary.

• Lines 12-20: definition of the territory owned by the temple, and of the salary to be awarded to the priest.

• Lines 20-24: on behalf of the temple a new tax is instituted, to be levied when a slave is liberated.

• Lines 24-30: the revenues thereof shall be spent on sacrifices at regular times.

• Lines 30-36: the citizens of Xanthos and the territory of Xanthos vow to execute faithfully those regulations.

Sample of the Lycian text

Below is a transliteration of a sample of lines with an English translation:

1-2. When Pixodarus, the son of Hecatomnus, became satrap of Lycia, (1) Ẽke: trm̃misñ: xssaθrapazate: pigesere: (2) katamlah: tideimi:

2-5. he appointed as rulers of Lycia Hieron (ijeru) and Apollodotos (natrbbejẽmi), and as governor (asaxlazu) of Xanthus, Artemelis (erttimeli). sẽñneñte- (3) pddẽhadẽ: trm̃mile: pddẽnehm̃mis: (4) ijeru: senatrbbejẽmi: se(j)arñna: (5) asaxlazu: erttimeli:

5-6. The citizens (arus) and the Xanthian neighboring residents decided mehñtitubedẽ: (6) arus: se(j)epewẽtlm̃mẽi: arñnãi:

7-8. to establish an altar to the Kaunian Ruler and the King Arkesimas (7) m̃maitẽ: kumezijẽ: θθẽ: xñtawati: (8) xbidẽñni: se(j)arKKazuma: xñtawati:

9-10. and they chose as priest Simias, the son of Kondorasis (9) sẽñnaitẽ: kumazu: mahãna: ebette: (10) eseimiju: qñturahahñ: tideimi:

11. and whoever is closest to Simias (11) sede: eseimijaje: xuwatiti:

12. and they granted him exemption (arawã) from taxes. (12) seipijẽtẽ: arawã: ehbijẽ: esiti:

The Letoon Trilingual Stele is more than just a piece of inscribed stone; it's a silent orator of a bygone era, speaking of a time when cultures converged, languages intermingled, and histories intertwined. As with all such artifacts, it prompts us to reflect on the ever-evolving story of human civilization and the ties that bind us across time and space.

The Trilingual Xanthian Pillar: A Tale of Greek, Lycian, and Milyan Inscriptions

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Trilingual Inscribed 'Xanthian Obelisk' of Ancient Greek, Lycian, and Milyan Languages

The rich tapestry of history is woven with the threads of diverse cultures and civilizations. One such piece of this tapestry is the Xanthian Obelisk, an artifact that stands as a testimony to the mingling of languages and cultures in ancient Anatolia. Etched with inscriptions in Ancient Greek, Lycian, and Milyan, the obelisk presents historians and linguists with a golden opportunity to unlock secrets of the past.

Location and Historical context

The Xanthian Obelisk, also known as the Xanthos or Xanthus Stele, the Xanthos or Xanthus Bilingual, the Inscribed Pillar of Xanthos or Xanthus, the Harpagus Stele, the Pillar of Kherei and the Columna Xanthiaca, is a stele bearing an inscription currently believed to be trilingual, found on the acropolis of the ancient Lycian city of Xanthos, or Xanthus, near the modern town of Kınık in southern Turkey.

Xanthos (or Xanthus) was the capital city of ancient Lycia. Lycia was a region situated on the southern coast of Anatolia and had significant interactions with neighboring cultures and empires, notably the Persians and Greeks.

The Xanthian Obelisk was discovered in the Xanthos acropolis. The intricately carved stele dates back to the 4th century BC and is a significant remnant of Lycian culture and history.

It was created when Lycia was part of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. The pillar is seemingly a funerary marker of a dynastic satrap of Achaemenid Lycia. The dynasty in question is mentioned on the stele, but his name has been mostly defaced in the several places where he is mentioned: he could be Kherei (Xerei) or more probably his predecessor Kheriga (Xeriga, Gergis in Greek).

The obelisk or pillar was originally topped by a tomb, most certainly belonging to Kheriga, in a way similar to the Harpy Tomb. The top most likely fell down during an earthquake in ancient times. The tomb was decorated with reliefs of his exploits, and a statue of the dynasty standing on top.

The Inscriptions: A Trilingual Puzzle

The three languages are Ancient Greek, Lycian, and Milyan (the last two are Anatolian languages and were previously known as Lycian A and Lycian B, respectively). During its early period of study, the Lycian either could not be understood or was interpreted as two dialects of one language, hence the term bilingual.

1. Ancient Greek: Greek was a widely spoken and understood language in the Eastern Mediterranean during this period. Its presence on the obelisk signifies the Hellenistic influences in Lycia and the broader interactions between the Lycians and the Greeks.

2. Lycian: The Lycian language, a member of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European family, is indigenous to the Lycian region. Although now extinct, inscriptions like those on the Xanthian Obelisk provide valuable insights into the language and, by extension, the culture and politics of ancient Lycia.

3. Milyan (or Milyas): This is the least known of the three languages on the obelisk. Milyan is also an Anatolian language, spoken in the neighboring region of Milyas. Its presence on the obelisk underscores the close ties and interactions between the Lycian and Milyan people.

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Significance of the Obelisk

The trilingual inscriptions on the Xanthian Obelisk are reminiscent of the Rosetta Stone in Egypt, which was inscribed with Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic, and Ancient Greek. Such multilingual inscriptions are invaluable for linguists and historians, as they provide a means to cross-reference and decode extinct or poorly understood languages.

In addition to its linguistic importance, the obelisk sheds light on the socio-political climate of the time. The blending of three languages indicates a region that was not only a melting pot of cultures but also a hub of trade, diplomacy, and perhaps even shared governance.

Another trilingual from Xanthus, the Letoon trilingual, was subsequently named after its three languages: Greek, Lycian A, and Aramaic. They are both four-sided and trilingual. The search sites are different. The key, unequivocal words are bilingual, Letoon, Aramaic, Lycian B, and Milyan. The equivocal words are stele, trilingual, Xanthus, or Xanthos. The "Xanthus inscription" might refer to any inscription from Xanthus.

Text of the Obelisk at Xanthos. A more complete copy of all the fragments can be seen in The Xanthian Marbles.

Inscriptions

The stele is an important archaeological find pertaining to the Lycian language. Similar to the Rosetta Stone, it has inscriptions both in Greek and in a previously mysterious language: Lycian, which, on further analysis, turned out to be two Luwian languages, Lycian and Milyan.

Although not oriented on the cardinal directions, the stele presents four faces of continuous text that are traditionally described directionally, south, east, north and west, in that order, like the pages of a book. They are conventionally lettered a, b, c, and d. The whole book is inscription TAM I 44. The text of each page was inscribed in lines, conventionally numbered one through the number of the last line on the page. There are three pieces of text:

• a.1 through c.19. A historical section of 250 lines in Lycian describing the major events in which the deceased was involved.

• c.20 through c.31. A 12-line epigram in Greek in the style of Simonides of Ceos honoring the deceased.

• c.32 through d.71. A paraphrase of the epigram in Milyan.

The pillar sits atop a tomb, and the inscription celebrates the deceased: a champion wrestler.

The Xanthian Obelisk stands as a silent sentinel of the past, bearing messages from ancient civilizations. Its trilingual inscriptions have significantly contributed to our understanding of the languages and interactions of the ancient Anatolian peoples. As researchers continue to study such artifacts, we get one step closer to unraveling the mysteries of our shared human heritage.

Farmer Discovers Rare Hittite-era Bracelet in Turkey's Çorum

A man plowing his farm in Turkey’s central Çorum province discovered a rare 3,300-year-old ancient bracelet from the Hittite era.

The farmer, who lives in the Çitli village of Mecitözü district, found the bracelet while he was working on the farm and brought the ancient treasure to the Çorum Museum.

Experts found out that the artifact is from the ancient Hittite civilization and carried out restoration work. They then recorded it in the museum’s inventory and put it in the collection.

The beautiful bracelet is made out of bronze, nickel, silver and gold and is adorned with depictions of Hittite symbols, including imagery of the Itar/Auka and his servants Ninatta and Kulitta.

Resul Ibiş, an archaeologist at the museum, told Ihlas News Agency (IHA) that the bracelet has been put on display for visitors.

“After initial evaluations, we realized that this piece is unprecedented and we’ve never seen anything like this before,” he said, adding that it is from the 13th century B.C.

Ibiş also noted that the bracelet was deformed when it was brought to the museum and some of its pieces were missing, but they restored it.

The archaeologist also noted that there are very few pieces of Hittite-era jewelry and this piece sheds light on the jewelry styles of the civilization.

Çorum is home to the ancient Hittite city of Hattusa, one of the most significant tourist destinations in Turkey. It serves as an open-air museum with 6-kilometer-long (nearly 4-mile-long) city walls, monumental city gates, a 71-meter-long (78-yard-long) underground passage, the Hittites palace in Büyükkale, 31 unearthed temples and ancient wheat silos. It was added to UNESCO's World Heritage List in 1986 due to its well-protected architectural structures and excavation site. It also has also held UNESCO’s title of "Memory of the World" since 2001 with its cuneiform scripts representing the oldest known form of Indo-European languages.

Hattusa served as the capital of the Hittite Empire, which was one of the civilizations that played an important role in the development of urban life, in the late Bronze Age. The capital was the first national excavation site in Turkey.

Is the Phaistos Disc Fake? A Comparison With The Etruscan Disc of Magliano

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by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Italian archaeologist Luigi Pernier discovered the Phaistos Disc in 1908. Since then, the disc has sparked scholarly discussions. Jerome Eisenberg, an art historian, is among those who think the disc is a fake. Shocking artifact or contemporary forgery?

The mysteries of the ancient world have long sparked the curiosity of historians and archaeologists, but alongside the quest for understanding lies the risk of deception. Among these potentially confounding pieces are the Phaistos Disc and the Disc of Magliano, both of which have stirred significant debate about their authenticity. Some, like Jerome M. Eisenberg, Ph.D., assert that these artifacts may not be as ancient as we believe. This article delves into the intriguing world of these enigmatic discs and the ongoing debates about their authenticity.

The Phaistos Disc: A Cretan Mystery

Phaistos Disc in now on display in the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, Crete. Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Unearthed in 1908 in the Minoan palace of Phaistos, located on the Greek island of Crete, the Phaistos Disc is an artifact that has mystified experts for over a century. It's a round clay disc about 15 centimeters in diameter, covered on both sides with a spiral of strange, stamped symbols. The symbols, 241 in total, represent 45 distinct signs, with everything from human figures and animals to abstract symbols, none of which match any known written language.

The disc is believed to date back to the second millennium BC, around 1700–1600 BC, during the middle or late Minoan Bronze Age. However, this dating has been a matter of speculation as it was inferred from the archaeological context rather than from the disc itself.

Controversially, Jerome M. Eisenberg, an expert in the detection of forgeries in ancient art, has suggested that the Phaistos Disc is a modern creation. He proposed that the disc was created by its finder, Italian archaeologist Luigi Pernier. According to Eisenberg, Pernier might have been motivated by a desire for fame, or the rivalry between Italian and French archaeologists to discover significant Minoan artifacts.

The Disc of Magliano: An Etruscan Enigma

The Disc of Magliano, on the other hand, was discovered in Magliano, Tuscany, in 1882. It is a bronze artifact, around 10 cm in diameter, bearing inscriptions in Etruscan language arranged in two concentric spirals. The artifact, dated back to the late 6th or early 5th century BC, represents one of the longest known Etruscan inscriptions.

Unlike the Phaistos Disc, the language on the Disc of Magliano is known, but the text remains enigmatic due to the lack of an extensive understanding of Etruscan grammar and vocabulary. The authenticity of the Magliano disc is generally accepted, providing a fascinating contrast to the controversies surrounding the Phaistos disc.

Inscriptions are displayed in a spiral pattern toward the disc's center. It is one of the longest surviving manuscripts in the Etruscan language because it has over 70 words. According to one interpretation of the writing, it is the guidelines for presenting sacrifices to the deities Tnia, Maris, Calu, and Canthas.

The shape of the object is reminiscent of the famous Phaistos disk.

Comparisons and Controversies

Despite some similarities in form, the Phaistos disc and the disc of Magliano are fundamentally different. They were discovered in different regions, made of different materials, inscribed in different languages, and are from different periods. However, the enigmatic nature of both artifacts has made them subjects of fascination and controversy.

A significant reason why some argue that the Phaistos Disc is a forgery while the Magliano Disc is not lies in the circumstances of their discoveries. The Phaistos Disc was discovered during an official excavation by a known archaeologist, Luigi Pernier, who, according to Eisenberg, had the motive and opportunity to forge such an artifact. The Magliano Disc, meanwhile, was found by a farmer, and its inscriptions are in a known language, lending it more credibility.

Modern forgery or sensational artifact?

Jerome M. Eisenberg declares that the Phaistos disc is created by its “finder” Louis Pernier!

Archaeologists largely agree that the Phaistos Disc is genuine. The excavation records kept by Luigi Pernier are the foundation for the assumption of legitimacy. The later discovery of the Arkalochori Axe, which had glyphs that were similar but not identical, lends credence to this notion.

Two academics have suggested that the disc could be a 1908 fabrication or hoax. The Times said that thermoluminescence dating has never been used to determine the date of manufacturing. Robinson says that in his 2008 analysis, he does not support the forgery accusations but instead claims, "It is essential to perform a thermoluminescence test on the Phaistos Disc. It will either prove that new discoveries are worthwhile to look for or it will discourage academics from wasting their time."

The Mavro Spilio ring, a gold signet ring from Knossos discovered in 1926, has a linear A inscription that was created in a spiral-delimited field, much like the Phaistos Disc. The sole known counterpart to sign 21 (the "comb") of the Phaistos disc can be seen on a sealing discovered in 1955. This is taken into account as proof that the Phaistos Disc is an authentic Minoan artifact.

According to Jerome M. Eisenberg, Ph.D., who studies the issue of counterfeiting in ancient art, the disc was made by its discoverer, Louis Pernier!

Yet, why would Pernier pull off such a prank? Federico Halbherr, an Italian archaeologist who worked with him, conducted excavations in Gortyna in 1884. The earliest European Law Code, "The Big Inscription," was discovered by Halbherr on the city walls. He also discovered numerous other artifacts with ancient Greek writing from the early 5th century BC. This discovery made Halbherr very well known.

SIR ARTHUR EVANS

Painted by William Blake Richmond (1842–1921)

Along with other archaeologists from Italy, Pernier was conducting excavations on the Messara plain. He was employed by Phaistos at the start of the 20th century, in the year 1900. This was at the same time that Arthur Evans began excavating at Knossos, where he soon found a large number of clay tablets containing Linear A and B inscriptions. There were high hopes that Pernier would come to a similar conclusion. It is highly likely that he had not discovered any inscribed material by 1908.

Luigi Pernier

What could he possibly do to gain sufficient fame and glory to compete with Evans and Halbherr?

What could he possibly do to become famous and successful enough to rival Evans and Halbherr? What might he possibly find? The fabrication of the Phaistos Disc, a relic with unintelligible pictographic writing, was his quick solution. Italian archaeologist Pernier He must have been well acquainted with the Magliano Disc throughout his studies in Italy, as it was the most frequently discussed scientific topic in the 1890s. The disc discovered by Italian archaeologists in the late 1880s resembles the Phaistos Disc in many ways. With the writing spiraling inward in Etruscan, the entire design is virtually round. At the time, the Etruscan language was still untranslated. Only two discs of this "model" have ever been discovered in the entire world: the Phaistos and the Magliano!

Why not test the Phaistos disc?

It's a fair question to ask why, with all the controversies surrounding the Phaistos Disc, no definitive tests have been conducted to confirm its age. To begin with, thermoluminescence dating, a common method for dating ancient ceramic objects, could potentially provide an answer.

However, this method is not without complications. Firstly, it involves heating a small sample of the material, which could cause irreversible damage to such a unique artifact. Secondly, thermoluminescence dating has its limits; it can indicate whether an object was fired in antiquity or recently, but it can't pinpoint a specific century within the ancient period. Therefore, even if the test confirms the disc was fired in antiquity, it would not settle the debate about whether it belongs to the Minoan period.

Furthermore, since the disc was allegedly found in a pit along with other artifacts (pottery, clay sealings, etc.), even proving that it was created in antiquity wouldn't necessarily prove it was ’t a forgery. An unscrupulous forger could have inserted a newly-created disc into an ancient archaeological context, thereby making it seem as if the disc and the other objects in the pit were all from the same period.

Why not dispel rumors that the famous Phaistos disc is a fake by finding out how old it is? The guardian of the disc, the Herakleion Archaeological Museum in Crete, won't permit it. This is the brief response to this query. Because of its singularity, it is regarded as immovable.

It is true that thermoluminescent batting would result in the least amount of harm to the disc since it only calls for drilling a small hole or two on the edge that could afterwards be filled in to make it nearly undetectable.

The story of the Phaistos Disc and the Disc of Magliano illustrates the challenges faced by historians and archaeologists when it comes to establishing the authenticity of ancient artifacts. The former, embroiled in a century-long controversy, represents the complications of authenticating an artifact when its discovery circumstances and characteristics arouse suspicion. In contrast, the latter, accepted as a genuine artifact, still poses linguistic riddles for the scientific community.

Both discs, whether authentic or not, contribute to our understanding of the past and how we approach the study of history. The controversies surrounding them underscore the necessity of rigorous scientific investigation in archaeology and highlight the delicate interplay between fact, interpretation, and sometimes, deception, in our quest to unravel the secrets of the past.

Cats and Babies: Thousand-year-old Mummies in Turkey’s Aksaray

BY IHLAS NEWS AGENCY, DAILY SABAH

Cat, baby and adult mummies in Aksaray, the gateway to Cappadocia with its historical cultural riches and known as the first settlement of Central Anatolia, have been enchanting visitors at a museum where they are on display.

At the Aksaray Museum, which houses Turkey's first and only mummy section, there stands on display a total of 13 mummies, consisting of cats, babies and adult humans from the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries unearthed in excavations in and around Aksaray.

Aksaray Museum Director Yusuf Altın provided information on the mummies, which are preserved in showcases with special heating and cooling systems.

"With 13 mummies in our Aksaray Museum, we are the only museum in Turkey with a mummy section," Altın said. "There is one mummy in each of the Amasya and Niğde Museums, but our museum has the only section exhibited in this way ... in our country."

"The mummies in our museum were found as a result of the excavations in the churches in Ihlara Valley. Some of our mummies were found in the churches built about a thousand years ago in Çanlı Church," he stated.

Altın pointed out that the embalming technique in Turkey was different compared to Egypt.

"Of these mummies, the baby mummy is very technical work in itself. Because the mummification technique in our country is different from the mummification technique in Egypt. In this technique, after the person dies, the internal organs of the corpse are removed, the wax is melted and the corpse is covered with a layer of glaze. Then it is covered with fabric and shroud. It is buried in the ground in this way and the corpse remains preserved for centuries after it dries. We bring our mummies from these excavations to our museum and exhibit them. In particular, we also exhibit the embroideries of necklaces, booties and shrouds on them."

Yusuf stated that a cat loved by its owner was also preserved with the mummification technique and that a cat mummy was found during the excavation efforts.

"We have another mummy, the cat mummy, which especially attracts the attention of our children. Our cat mummy was covered with wax and preserved, probably because it was loved by its owner. So, we have been displaying it in our museum," he said.

"All of our mummies are from the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries. So, they are almost a thousand years old."

Smuggled historical artifacts in US returned to Turkey

28 Turkish cultural artifacts from the Neolithic Period to the Roman Era confiscated in the US were handed to Turkiye's Consulate General in New York. Two goddess figurines of Ephesus and Hacılar origin, a deer-shaped rhyton from the Hellenistic Period, numerous coins, and other interesting assets will continue to shed light on hidden stories of the past in Anatolia.

The seized historical artifacts, including 16 which were in the antique art collection of US billionaire Michael Steinhardt, are returning to Turkiye.

During the handover ceremony at the Turkevi Center, historical artifacts were received by the Turkish Consul General in New York Reyhan Ozgur from the US Department of Homeland Security and the Manhattan District Attorney's Office.

Ozgur said the process of returning the 28 artifacts smuggled from Turkiye was completed with the work of the country's Culture and Tourism Ministry.

Turkiye has recovered more than 8,000 historical artifacts that were smuggled in the last 20 years, he said, and added that the artifacts would be exhibited in Turkish museums.

Among recovered items are 12 coins, a 6,000-year-old Kilia idol, a mother goddess idol from the neolithic period and a Stag’s Head Rhyton.

Turkiye announced last month that it recovered 3,480 cultural assets in 2021 thanks to the efforts of the country's anti-smuggling authorities.

The process for recovering artifacts involves multiple state agencies, including law enforcement and judicial authorities, as well as diplomatic efforts and court cases in the countries where the artifacts are found.

Taking cultural assets abroad without official permission has been illegal since the Republic of Turkiye’s founding and even earlier during the Ottoman Empire.

Unlicensed excavation is illegal, as is failing to report any uncovered artifacts to authorities, under current legislation.