Listen to the Sound of the Hittite language!

Also known as Nesite and Neshite, Hittite was an Indo-European language that was spoken by the Hittites, a people of Bronze Age Anatolia who created an empire, centred on Hattusa, as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. The language, now long extinct, is attested in cuneiform, in records dating from the 16th (Anitta text) to the 13th centuries BCE, with isolated Hittite loanwords and numerous personal names appearing in an Old Assyrian context from as early as the 20th century BCE.

By the Late Bronze Age, Hittite had started losing ground to its close relative Luwian. It appears that in the 13th century BCE, Luwian was the most-widely spoken language in the Hittite capital, Hattusa. After the collapse of the Hittite Empire during the more general Late Bronze Age collapse, Luwian emerged in the Early Iron Age as the main language of the so-called Syro-Hittite states, in southwestern Anatolia and northern Syria. Hittite is the earliest-attested of the Indo-European languages and is the best-known of the Anatolian languages.

• Hittite (Nešili) Region: Anatolia

• Era: attested 16th to 13th centuries BCE

• Language family: Indo-European (Anatolian)

• Writing system: Hittite cuneiform

By ILoveLanguages!

8,500-year-old Marble Statuette found in Çatalhöyük

By Leman Altuntaş, Arkeonews

In the 29th season of the excavations in Çatalhöyük, one of the first urbanization models in Anatolia, in the Çumra district of Konya, located in the middle of Turkey, an 8,500-year-old marble statuette was found.

A 5 cm tall prismatic figurine with an indeterminate gender and a leaning back human shape thrilled the excavation team at the 9,000-year-old Neolithic City of Çatalhöyük, where the female figure usually stands out.

Head of Excavation, Anadolu University Faculty Member Assoc. Dr. Ali Umut Türkcan told Anadolu Agency that they closed the second season with important findings such as the new neighborhood and street unearthed in the summer, during the excavations carried out under his leadership.

Latest explaining that the most recent excavations in 2016 found marble female statuettes in the southern mound, Türkcan said:

“This year, we opened a large area called ‘North Terrace’. During the excavations carried out in this area, a marble human statuette was found at the foot of a plastered wall while excavating parts of ‘Place 66’, which is filled with rubble and has burn marks at the base, which was also used as a warehouse. The find was found placed next to an obsidian arrowhead and a lump of lime that we don’t fully understand. Like other similar finds, we can say that it is an example that repeats the way it was found with a votive obsidian tool in abandoned and buried structures.”

Türkcan emphasized that this marble statuette is a piece that is rarely seen.

“This example of ours is reminiscent of figurines identified as male, leaning back slightly and reminiscent of figurines thought to be on an animal, similar to those found in excavations in the past. When Çatalhöyük is mentioned, it is thought that there is always a female representation and a center associated with female fertility.”

“The shaping elements of the head of our marble figurine, which is this year’s find, are slightly different from those found in classical Çatalhöyük. It is seen that his head is elongated and is depicted with a triangular head in the extension of his body. Very fine processing details seem on the figurine, even the chisel marks on the neck.”

Türkcan added that Çatalhöyük is always open to big surprises.

'Alakasandu' - Alexander: A Greek Name in Hittite Cuneiform Text?

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Cross-Cultural Echoes: The Intriguing Case of 'Alakasandu', a Hellenic Echo in Hittite Cuneiform?

In the ancient landscapes of human civilization, two cultures stood tall among the rest: the Hittites of Anatolia and the Mycenaean Greeks of Helladic Mainland. Unbeknownst to many, these cultures had surprising connections in antiquity. One such connection has to do with the fascinating correlation between the Greek name 'Alexander' and a Hittite name: 'Alakasandu'. Scholars have long debated whether these two names, separated by centuries and civilizations, could in fact be one and the same, finding their home in ancient Hittite cuneiform texts.

A total of 11,000 tablets with cuneiform texts were discovered after the 19th-century excavations of the Frenchman Charles Texier revealed Hattusa, the capital of the Hittite kingdom, in the hamlet of Boğazköy in modern-day Turkey. The Czech philologist Bedřich Hrozný (1879–1952) conducted the first decipherment of the language on these tablets in 1915 and demonstrated that they were written in the extinct Hittite language.

Aerial view of Hatussa’s citadel.

We may learn a lot about the Middle and Late Bronze Ages in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and the prehistoric Aegean from the archive of the tablets at Hattusa and texts discovered at other Hittite sites. The discovery of Greek names (such as Eteoklis, "Tawagalawa," and Atreas, "Attarissiya") in the Hittite archives by the Swiss archaeologist Emil Forrer in 1924 gave the sense that the shadowy time of the Trojan War may finally come into the light. The Czech philologist Bedich Hrozn (1879–1952) conducted the first decipherment of the language on these tablets in 1915 and demonstrated that they were written in the extinct Hittite language.

The identification of the names that emphasize the historical context of the Homeric poetry brought the interest to a close. It was also crucial to make mention of a conflict involving the city of "Wilusa" (Ilion/Troy). The monarch of Wilusa, who was a slave to the Hittites (thus referring to the Hittite records), and who had signed a treaty with the Hittite king Muwatali II in the 13th century BC, owes a dowry to the king of "Ahhiyawa" (Achaia), whose name has not been saved. His name was "Alaksandu," and his dowry included some nearby islands (perhaps Tenedos, Imbros, Lemnos, or Lesvos) ("Alaksandu", alternatively called Alakasandu or Alaksandos).

Clay cuneiform tablet; fragment. Hittite treaty between Muwattalli II of Hatti and Alakšandu of Wiluša. Nineteen lines., 1300 BC.

The Hittite Empire and the Name 'Alakasandu'

The Hittite Empire (c. 1600–1178 BCE) thrived in the region that now constitutes modern-day Turkey. The Hittites left behind a rich archive of cuneiform texts, a treasure trove of information for historians and archaeologists. Among these texts, the name 'Alakasandu' appears as the moniker of a significant king. This king was reportedly involved in a treaty with the Hittite ruler Muwatalli II (c. 1295–1272 BCE) in the late Bronze Age.

'Alakasandu' is documented as the king of Wilusa, an ancient city identified with classical Ilios or Ilion, known in the Western tradition as Troy. The debate over whether 'Alakasandu' could be an ancient rendering of 'Alexander' primarily arises from this connection.

The Greek Name 'Alexander'

'Alexander' is a name steeped in Greek tradition, with its roots tracing back to the language's ancient form. It is derived from the Greek 'Alexandros,' literally translating to 'defending men' or 'protector of men,' a compound of 'alexein' (to defend) and 'andros' (of men).

The most famous bearer of this name, Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE), ruled over a millennium after the Hittite king 'Alakasandu.' Alexander's conquests and expeditions spread Greek influence throughout the ancient world, marking a significant period of Hellenistic culture.

The Connection Between 'Alakasandu' and 'Alexander'

The idea that 'Alakasandu' could be a Hittite rendering of 'Alexander' has its roots in historical linguistics, particularly the study of Luwian, a close relative of Hittite. Scholars suggest that the Luwians, like the Hittites, resided in Anatolia and interacted with the Greeks, facilitating the sharing of names and titles.

Several phonetic and linguistic parallels are drawn between 'Alakasandu' and 'Alexander'. Some researchers suggest that the Hittite and Luwian languages might have phonetically rendered 'Alexander' as 'Alakasandu.' Given the position of Wilusa (Troy) near the Aegean Sea, close to the ancient Greek world, there could have been ample opportunity for cultural and linguistic exchange.

Map of anatolian languages distribution.

Counterarguments and Challenges

Despite these compelling links, there remain significant challenges in definitively asserting that 'Alakasandu' is an ancient form of 'Alexander'.

The complexities of ancient language translation and phonetic rendering often lead to discrepancies and ambiguities. There's always a possibility that similarities between 'Alakasandu' and 'Alexander' are coincidental rather than indicative of a linguistic link.

The question of whether 'Alakasandu' is an early form of 'Alexander' gives us a fascinating glimpse into the interconnections and interactions between ancient cultures. While it might never be conclusively proven, the debate itself illuminates the richness and complexity of our human past. It is a testament to the incredible journey of cultural transmission and the enduring legacy of names across ages and civilizations.

Given that in the Homeric poems everything happened on the occasion of the abduction of Helen by Alexander or Paris, maybe during a "marriage", how close are we to connecting these events with the Trojan War?

4,500-year-old Rope Remains found in Turkey’s Seyitömer Mound

In the ongoing excavations in Seyitömer mound in western Kütahya province, experts have discovered a 4,500-year-old rope.

The excavations have been carried out in the mound by Kütahya Museum Directorate under the supervision of museum expert Serdar Ünan for three years. Speaking to Anadolu Agency (AA), Nazan Ünan, an academician of Kütahya Dumlupınar University (DPÜ), said they have been sustaining the work in the mound with a technical staff of 50, comprised of archaeologists, restorers, architects, architectural restorers and ceramic experts, plus a team of 250 laborers.

A view of the rope remains in Seyitömer Mound, Kütahya, western Turkey, Dec. 23, 2021. (AA Photo)

Noting that they have unveiled settlements dating back to the second and third period of the Early Bronze Age and Roman period in the mound to date, Ünan said that they also discovered around 6,000 archaeological finds shedding light on the mound's past.

Stating that the most surprising finding in the mound in 2021 was the remains of a 4,500-year-old rope, she continued: “We found these remains in an area where a fire broke out in the past. We consider the rope remains important because they are almost the same thickness and weave as the ropes we use today.”

Ünan also explained that the remains of the rope along with many other organic items have survived to date because they were originally burned.

A general view from Seyitömer Mound, Kütahya, western Turkey, Dec. 23, 2021. (AA)

Seyitömer Mound

Seyitömer Mound, which dates to the third century B.C., is located in the work area of the Çelikler Seyitömer Electricity Generation Corporation, 26 kilometers (16 miles) from the city's center.

The excavation of the mound, which had an original height of 26 meters (85 feet), width of 140 meters and length of 150 meters, was initiated by the Eskişehir Museum Directorate in 1989 to bring 12 million tons of lignite under it into the economy.

The mound was excavated by the Afyonkarahisar Museum Directorate between the years 1990 and 1995. The DPÜ Archeology Department took over the excavations in 2006. The excavation team consisting of academic staff, students and workers continued working in the mound until 2014. More than 17,000 artifacts excavated from the mound have been handed over to the Museum Directorate for display.

The excavations have resumed, run by the Kütahya Museum Directorate, since 2019.

Herodotus' Error: Misreading the Hittite 'Karabel Rock Relief' as Egyptian

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The monument may have been mentioned by Herodotus in his history, where he identified the carved figure as the Egyptian pharaoh Sesostris and the hieroglyphics as Egyptian

The Hittite "Karabel" Relief, also known as the Karabel Hittite Rock Relief, is a rock-cut relief located in the Turkish province of Izmir, near the town of Torbal. This monument is known for its historical significance and the detailed depiction of a Hittite warrior, a powerful symbol of the Hittite Empire that flourished during the Late Bronze Age in Anatolia and the Levant, from approximately 1600 to 1200 BC.

On the southern slope of a mountain, on the left side of the road, in the Karabel Pass of the Kemalpaşa-Torbal highway, is the location of substantial relief. It is 2.5 meters tall and around 1.5 meters broad. A man figure is shown standing, holding a bow and a spear in his right and left hands, respectively. The person is dressed in a tunic and a cone-shaped hat. Among experts, this alleviation is known as Karabel A. Three lines of an extremely worn-out Hieroglyphic Luwian inscription can just about be made out between the warrior's head and the spear. The lowest half of the relief sustained significant damage from the treasure hunters in 2017 and 2019.

The Karabel Relief, sketch of Charles Texier.

A Hittite Mystery Misinterpreted by Herodotus

The figure on the relief is believed to be the Hittite King Tarkasnawa (also known as Tarkondemos), based on an inscription in the Luwian language that was found near the relief. The figure is shown wearing a pointed hat and a short skirt, both characteristic of Hittite depictions of their rulers. In one hand, he holds a spear, while the other hand is raised in a gesture of worship or salute.

However, the Karabel relief has a curious connection with the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who lived in the 5th century BC. In his "Histories", Herodotus described a monument that he encountered on his travels through what is now western Turkey. He wrote that this monument depicted an armed warrior and was inscribed with Egyptian hieroglyphics.

This statement by Herodotus has caused some confusion among scholars, as the Karabel relief is clearly not Egyptian in style or script but Hittite. It appears that Herodotus made a mistake in his identification. This mistake may be due to his unfamiliarity with the Hittite Empire and its language, as it had already collapsed several centuries before his time and its history and culture were not yet widely known or studied.

Moreover, the script on the Karabel relief is not hieroglyphic but rather in a form known as Luwian hieroglyphs or Anatolian hieroglyphs, which is quite distinct from Egyptian hieroglyphics. Luwian hieroglyphs were used in the region during the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE, notably by the Hittite and Luwian civilizations. Therefore, Herodotus might have confused this with the more famous Egyptian hieroglyphs.

Thus, Herodotus's mistake provides us with an interesting example of the limitations and challenges of historical and archaeological interpretation, especially in times when knowledge about ancient cultures was still limited or obscured by time. It also reminds us of the often complex and nuanced nature of ancient interactions and influences and the role of modern archaeological and linguistic studies in helping to shed light on these historical riddles.

Herodotus may have made reference to the monument in his history, identifying the carved figure as Egyptian pharaoh Sesostris as follows:

"... in Ionia there are two figures of this man carved upon rocks, one on the road by which one goes from the land of Ephesus to Phocaia, and the other on the road from Sardis to Smyrna. In each place there is a figure of a man cut in the rock, of four cubits and a span in height, holding in his right hand a spear and in his left a bow and arrows, ... and from the one shoulder to the other across the breast runs an inscription carved in Egyptian hieroglyphics, saying, 'This land with my shoulders I won for myself."

(Herodotus II.106)

The Sardis-Ephesus route passes via Karabel Pass instead of the historic Sardis-Smyrna road, and it is important to take into account that the Ephesus-Phocai road is located much to the south. Herodotus' description was either inaccurate, or it's possible he was referring to a separate but related relief. The Torbal relief's recent discovery suggests that the area may have housed a number of other monuments of a similar nature. It goes without saying that the figure in the relief is not a ruler of Egypt. David Hawkins published the reading of the Karabel A inscription in 1998. Hawkins reads the inscription's three lines as follows:

Tarkasnawa, King of Mira (land).
[Son of] Alantalli, King of Mira land.
Grandson of ..., King of Mira land.

The reading of Alantalli is uncertain. In addition, even though the grandfather's name cannot be read, it has been hypothesized that it is Kupanta-Kuruntiya. Tarkondemos, who is seen in a few Boazköy seals, is also identified as Tarkasnawa by Hawkins reading. The Tarkasnawa reading has received widespread support from academics. The Hittite domain's vassal kingship of Mira was led by Alantalli, who is known to have lived during Tudhaliya IV's reign. As a result, his son Tarkasnawa should have lived during the reigns of Tudhaliya IV and/or Suppiluliuma II, placing the monument around the end of the 13th century BC.

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The Surrounding Area of the Misread Monument

North of the Karabel, a few hundred meters A relief included a related relief, two distinct hieroglyphic inscriptions, and another relief. Karabel B, Karabel C1, and Karabel C2 were the names given to the three of them, respectively. Sadly, between 1977 and 1982, when the adjoining road was being widened, these three engravings were completely obliterated. A standing male figure with a spear in his outstretched left hand and perhaps a bow on his right shoulder was likewise depicted on Karabel B. With the exception of the first character, which was possibly "King," the worn-out writing on the relief was unintelligible.

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Only a few meters to the north of Karabel B, the inscriptions C1 and C2 were found on the perpendicular surfaces of the same rock. The C1 inscription, which contained five Egyptian letters, was the best preserved. Hawkins' interpretation of Karabel A suggests that C1 could be partially translated as "King Tarkasnawa" (ASINUS-wa REX). The C2 inscription proved more difficult to read, but it may have contained the names of the kings Tarkasnawa and Alantalli on the first line of the three-line inscription.

Hattusa, the capital of the Hittite Empire: 3D Tour by 'Kings and Generals'

Kings and Generals' historical animated documentary series on the history of ancient civilizations continues with a 3d tour of the Hittite capital Hattusa. In this video they showcase the architecture and structure of the city, focusing on the religious practices, defenses, culture, and daily life of the Bronze age capital.

Hattusa

Ḫattuša was the capital of the Hittite Empire in the late Bronze Age. Its ruins lie near modern Boğazkale, Turkey, within the great loop of the Kızılırmak River (Hittite: Marashantiya; Greek: Halys).

Hattusa was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Site list in 1986.

Before 2000 BC, the apparently indigenous Hattian people established a settlement on sites that had been occupied even earlier and referred to the site as Hattush. The Hattians built their initial settlement on the high ridge of Büyükkale. The earliest traces of settlement on the site are from the sixth millennium BC. In the 19th and 18th centuries BC, merchants from Assur in Assyria established a trading post there, setting up in their own separate quarter of the city. The center of their trade network was located in Kanesh (Neša) (modern Kültepe). Business dealings required record-keeping: the trade network from Assur introduced writing to Hattusa, in the form of cuneiform.

A carbonized layer apparent in excavations attests to the burning and ruin of the city of Hattusa around 1700 BC. The responsible party appears to have been King Anitta from Kussara, who took credit for the act and erected an inscribed curse for good measure:

Whoever after me becomes king resettles Hattusas, let the Stormgod of the Sky strike him!

Discovery

In 1833, the French archaeologist Charles Texier (1802–1871) was sent on an exploratory mission to Turkey, where in 1834 he discovered ruins of the ancient Hittite capital of Hattusa. Ernest Chantre opened some trial trenches at the village then called Boğazköy, in 1893–94. Since 1906, the German Oriental Society has been excavating at Hattusa (with breaks during the two World Wars and the Depression, 1913–31 and 1940–51). Archaeological work is still carried out by the German Archaeological Institute (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut). Hugo Winckler and Theodore Makridi Bey (A greek with ottoman citizenship) conducted the first excavations in 1906, 1907, and 1911–13, which were resumed in 1931 under Kurt Bittel, followed by Peter Neve (site director 1963, general director 1978–94).

The Cyclical Retaliatory Burnings Between Greeks and Persians: The Destruction of Athens and Persepolis

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Following Persia's conquest of the cities of Ionia (on the Aegean coast of Minor Asia) around 540 BC, the Persian satrap in Sardis appointed local tyrants to control the region. That marked the start of a two-century-long chain of incidents and war retaliations between the Greeks and Persians.

One of the most pivotal chapters in the annals of ancient world history was the ongoing conflict between the Persian Empire and the city-states of ancient Greece, notably Athens. This animosity culminated in a series of wars known as the Persian Wars (499–449 BC), which left a lasting imprint on the societies of both cultures. Central to this narrative are the notorious retaliatory burnings: the destruction of Athens by the Persians and the subsequent destruction of Persepolis by the Greeks. These events shaped the course of ancient history and have become emblematic of the cyclical nature of retribution and vengeance in war.

In an effort to strengthen his authority, the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, joined forces with the Persian satrap Artaphernes and launched an expedition to seize the Greek island of Naxos in 499 BC.

The mission was a failure, and Aristagoras decided to urge the entire Ionian region to rebel against the Persian king Darius the Great as he sensed his impending ouster as dictator.

The insurrection of Miletus was started by Aristagoras, who made the desperate decision to urge his own people, the Milesians, to rebel against their Persian overlords.

This marked the beginning of the Ionian Revolt, which lasted from 499 BC to 493 BC and was followed by related uprisings in Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus, and Caria. These were uprisings by various Greek provinces in Asia Minor against Persian control.

The revolt was sparked by two Milesian tyrants, Histiaeus and Aristagoras, as well as the discontent of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants assigned by Persia to rule them.

The Greco-Persian Wars began with the Ionian Rebellion, which was the first significant battle between Greece and the Persian Empire.

Location and main events of the Ionian Revolt.

The Ionians advanced in 498 BC with help from Athens' and Eretria's military forces. Aristagoras designated his brother Charopinus and another Milesian, Hermophantus, as generals instead of taking personal command of the army.

The Ephesians then led this force through the mountains to Artaphernes' satrapal city of Sardis. The Greeks managed to seize the lower city by surprising the Persians.

Nonetheless, Artaphernes maintained control of the citadel with a sizeable male force. Herodotus claims that a fire unintentionally started in the lower city and swiftly spread.

Being encircled by a burning city, the Persians in the citadel made their way out into Sardis' market, where they engaged the Greeks in combat and drove them back. Demoralized, the Greeks withdrew from the city and started to travel back to Ephesus.

The burning of Sardis by the Greeks during the Ionian Revolt in 498 BC.

According to Herodotus, when Darius learned about the burning of Sardis, he vowed to exact revenge on the Athenians (after enquiring as to who they were) and assigned a servant to remind him of his word three times every day: "Master, remember the Athenians."

The insurrection was finally put an end to by the Persian counteroffensive (497–495 BC), which brought all of Asia Minor securely back under Persian authority. At the end of 493 BC, the Persians' only remaining task was to wreak retribution on Athens and Eretria for aiding the uprising.

The nations of mainland Greece would continue to pose a serious danger to the integrity of Darius' empire until something was done about the Ionian Rebellion. So Darius started to plan the total conquest of Greece, starting with the obliteration of Athens and Eretria.

Achaemenid destruction of Athens

With Xerxes I's victory at the Battle of Thermopylae, the Achaemenid Army conquered all of Boeotia in 480 BCE. Thespiae and Plataea, the two cities that had resisted Xerxes, were taken captive and destroyed.

The Capture of the Acropolis by the Persians, Abbott, Jacob, 1803-1879 - History of Xerxes, published 1900.

The remaining Athenians were then evacuated to Salamis with the aid of the Allied navy because Attica was also vulnerable to attack. By erecting a wall, destroying the causeway from Megara, and establishing a defensive line across the Isthmus of Corinth, the Peloponnesian Allies effectively abandoned Athens to the Persians.

Sept. 480 BCE marked the first time Athens had fallen. After finally defeating the few Athenians who had fortified the Acropolis, Xerxes gave the order to set Athens on fire. The Old Parthenon and the Old Temple of Athena were destroyed, along with the Acropolis.

Those Persians who had come up first betook themselves to the gates, which they opened, and slew the suppliants; and when they had laid all the Athenians low, they plundered the temple and burnt the whole of the acropolis.

— Herodotus VIII.53

"Perserschutt," or "Persian rubble," refers to the numerous statue ruins destroyed by the Achaemenids.

The Achaemenids severely destroyed the statue known as "Nike (Victory) of Callimachus," which had been built close to the Older Parthenon in celebration of Callimachus and his triumph at the Battle of Marathon.

On top of an engraved column, a statue of Nike (Victory) in the shape of a female with wings is shown. It is 4.68 meters tall and constructed of Parian marble. Parts of the statue's body and hands, as well as its head, were never found.

A few statues were also taken by Xerxes, including the bronze statue of Harmodius and Haristogiton, popularly known as "the Tyrant-slayers," which Alexander the Great later found in the Achaemenid city of Susa.

Acropolis excavation pit where remains of Archaic statues were found, northwest of the Erechtheum.

Statue of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, Naples. Roman copy of the Athenian version by Kritios and Nesiotes

Themistocles used the Parthenon column drums for the North Acropolis wall so that Athenians would always be reminded of the agony caused by Persian atrocities against Greeks.

Acropolis North wall Older Partenon columns

Foundations of the Old Temple of Athena, in front of the Erechtheion, that was destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I in 480-479 BC.

Retaliatory burning of the Palace of Persepolis

After defeating the Persian Emperor Darius III (r. 336-330 BCE) at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE, Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) seized control of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

Alexander the Great lifting Thais holding a torch, in the painting "The Burning of Persepolis" (L'incendie de Persepolis), by Georges Rochegrosse, 1890.

Following a drinking party and at the suggestion of Thais, an Athens-based hetaira (courtesan), Alexander marched to the Persian capital city of Persepolis after defeating Darius III. He looted the city's treasures and then burned the great palace and the surrounding city to the ground (according to several much later Greek and Roman accounts, including those of Plutarch, Arrian, Diodorus Siculus, and Quintus Curtius Rufus).

When the king [Alexander] had caught fire at their words, all leaped up from their couches and passed the word along to form a victory procession in honour of Dionysus. Promptly many torches were gathered. Female musicians were present at the banquet, so the king led them all out for the comus to the sound of voices and flutes and pipes, Thaïs the courtesan leading the whole performance. She was the first, after the king, to hurl her blazing torch into the palace. As the others all did the same, immediately the entire palace area was consumed, so great was the conflagration. It was remarkable that the impious act of Xerxes, king of the Persians, against the acropolis at Athens should have been repaid in kind after many years by one woman, a citizen of the land which had suffered it, and in sport.

— Diodorus of Sicily (XVII.72)

The retaliatory burnings of Athens and Persepolis underscore the cyclical and devastating nature of warfare, where one act of destruction often leads to another. These events not only influenced the course of ancient history but also served as poignant reminders of the destructive capabilities of war and the enduring human instinct for retaliation. The ruins of the Acropolis and Persepolis, meticulously preserved, stand today as a testament to these monumental episodes of history, signifying the resilience of human societies in the face of conflict and devastation.

1,800-year-old headless Greek Statue found at Turkey’s Metropolis site

In the ancient Greek classical city of Metropolis, located in western Turkey, archaeologists have unearthed an 1,800-year-old marble robed statue of a headless woman. 

Despite missing its head and both arms, the rest of the statue is well-preserved and depicts a woman wearing flowing draped clothing.

The Turkish Culture and Tourism Ministry’s Department of Excavation and Celal Bayar University have been jointly studying the ancient city for years.

Known as the “Mother Goddess City,” Metropolis was located 28 miles from the ancient port city of Ephesus and 25 miles from the modern Turkish city of Izmir.

To date, archaeologists working at the site have unearthed artifacts and structures from the classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman periods. Finds include a Roman palaestra (wrestling hall), mosaics, ceramics, a council building and a columned gallery.

Metropolis was built in the third century BC, when the region was under the control of the Seleucid Empire. It reached its golden age during the Hellenistic period and served as a center of religious power during the Byzantine Period.

Excavations at Metropolis have been ongoing since 1990, according to the Sabanci Foundation, a philanthropic group that has supported the work.

One of the most prominent features of the ancient city is a Hellenistic theater dated to the third century BC. Roman-era structures discovered during digs include a sports complex, homes, shops, baths, a public toilet, streets and roads.

Earlier this year, archaeologists working at the Metropolis site also announced the discovery of huge cisterns dated to the late Roman or early Byzantine period (around 284 to 750 AD).

Capable of holding a total of around 600 tons of water, the cisterns probably supplied water to a bathhouse in the city and met Metropolis’ overall need for water when it was subjected to sieges that made other sources unavailable.

Many of these finds are now on display at the Izmir Art and History Museum, Izmir Archaeology Museum and Selcuk Efes Museum.

Source: Smithsonian Magazine.

The Unknown Achaean-Hittite Conflicts in Late Bronze Age!

Research on hittite inscriptions found in many prehistoric sites of the Hittite Empire (Bronze Age) shed light on a historical subject that is largely unknown to us, the military operations of Mycenaean (Achaean) Greeks on the coast of Anatolia (M Asia).

Mycenaean chariot warriors.

It seems that the so-called "Trojan War" known to us from the Homeric Epics is just an episode of a long war and an extensive dispute over the control of the Ionian coast between Achaeans, Hittites and many intermediate independent kingdoms.

Watch the interesting video of Wanax TV, as well as the other interesting subjects of the channel here.

The Armenian Ghost City of 'Ani' (Photo Gallery)

Situated on the eastern border of Turkey, across the Akhuryan River from Armenia, lies the empty, crumbling site of the once-great metropolis of Ani, known as "the city of a thousand and one churches."

Founded more than 1,600 years ago, Ani was situated on several trade routes, and grew to become a walled city of more than 100,000 residents by the 11th century. In the centuries that followed, Ani and the surrounding region were conquered hundreds of times - Byzantine emperors, Ottoman Turks, Armenians, nomadic Kurds, Georgians, and Russians claimed and reclaimed the area, repeatedly attacking and chasing out residents.

These ruins are all that remain of Ani, the cosmopolitan capital of medieval Armenia, one of the earliest kingdoms to adopt Christianity as its state religion in the early A.D. 300s. The site of a fifth-century fortification, Ani was chosen to be Armenia’s capital in the 10th century.

Painting of the Medieval city of Ani.

By the 1300s, Ani was in steep decline, and it was completely abandoned by the 1700s. Rediscovered and romanticized in the 19th century, the city had a brief moment of fame, only to be closed off by World War I and the later events of the Armenian Genocide that left the region an empty, militarized no-man's land. The ruins crumbled at the hands of many: looters, vandals, Turks who tried to eliminate Armenian history from the area, clumsy archaeological digs, well-intentioned people who made poor attempts at restoration, and Mother Nature herself. Restrictions on travel to Ani have eased in the past decade, allowing the following photos to be taken.

The medieval kingdom of Armenia once extended far beyond the modern boundaries of today’s nation. In ancient times these lands came under the control of the Persians, then the Seleucids, the Parthians, and the Romans. But as these different empires rose and fell, Armenian identity prevailed.

Damaged frescoes of the church of St Gregory of Tigran Honents in Ani, on February 19, 2010. Reuters/Umit Bektas

Christian Heritage

One of the first, the Church of St. Gregory of the Abughamrents, was built as a private chapel for the powerful Pahlavuni family. Like many of Ani’s churches, its location was purposefully chosen so it could be seen far away from the city. As Ani thrived under the early 11th-century king Gagik I, more churches were built from the local basalt stone. Ani’s imposing cathedral, built by the great Armenian architect Trdat, and three other churches, rose high above the city walls of Ani in the first half of the 11th century. The dome of one of these, the Church of the Holy Redeemer, was supported on an entirely circular drum and housed a fragment of the True Cross.

A turkish military warning sign with the Citadel behind, in Ani, on June 8, 2011. Original here.

City Abandonment

The city was destroyed by an earthquake in 1319. After a period under Safavid Persian rule, the city was officially absorbed into the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century and since then it became a ghost town, on the outskirts of present-day Turkey, where access is allowed only with the special permission of the Turkish authorities. But for those who are lucky and have the chance to see the majestic ruins closely, can understand what a "magical" city Ani was, like a magnificent miniature of Constantinople in the Far East.

Begun in 1915, the massacre of the Armenian people by the Ottoman Empire —who believed the local population had sided with Russia— wiped out as many as 1.5 million lives. Historians consider it the world’s first genocide (Biden’s Recognition of Armenian Genocide is also recent). The serene ruins of the city, once swarmed by armies through the ages, has always been a special place for Armenians. In the wake of the Armenian Genocide, it stands as an even more powerful reminder of Armenia’s losses and of its astonishing endurance.

PHOTO GALLERY

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Turkey's Ancient Cities Shed Light On Vast Mesopotamian History

Konya's 9,000-year-old Çatalhöyük, Çorum's Hittite ruins and its cultural and artistic center Alacahöyük, Anatolia's first executive military center, and Kayseri's Kültepe, home to thousands of clay tablets, are ancient sites included in Turkey's vast heritage, shedding light on thousands of years of Anatolian and Mesopotamian history.

A man wanders around in the ancient city of Çatalhöyük, a 9,000-year-old UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Çumra district of Konya, central Turkey, April 19, 2021. (AA Photo)

Çatalhöyük

The ancient Çatalhöyük site – located in the Çumra district of central Turkey's Konya – is one of the first urbanization models in Mesopotamia's history. It is on the UNESCO World Heritage List, and it is one of the clearest windows into the 9,000-year-old Anatolian lifestyle.

Archaeologist Numan Arslan, from the Çatalhöyük excavation project team, explained that the site was discovered in 1958, with the first excavations starting in 1961, and that the site was dated to the Neolithic period 9,000 years ago.

"Çatalhöyük has offered very intriguing data to the world of archeology. The art, symbolism, their complex societal structure, these kinds of settlements were known to exist in the Near East but not in Central Anatolia," Arslan told Anadolu Agency (AA).

The ancient city of Çatalhöyük, a 9,000-year-old UNESCO World Heritage Site, in the Çumra district of Konya, central Turkey, April 19, 2021. (AA Photo)

Arslan then stated that the transition from hunting and gathering to the first urban model occurred in Çatalhöyük. "We now live in metropolises. We have to follow the urban culture given by those crowded metropolises, but the people of Çatalhöyük first tried out an urban city culture here, 9,000 years ago,” he said.

Arslan also noted their societal system. “There was a completely egalitarian social structure. There were no public spaces, no common meeting areas. Lots of houses. It shows us the importance of working together and supporting each other."

Hattusas and Alacahöyük

Çorum is home to many Anatolia “firsts” thanks to its vast ancient history with its ruins of Hattusas, which served as the capital of the Hittite civilization for 450 years, and Alacahöyük, which was the cultural and artistic center of the Hittites and the first administrative-military center in Anatolia, all located within the borders of the northern Anatolian province.

The ancient city of Hattusas, located in the district of Boğazkale and host to the cultural heritage of the Hittites, is the only ancient city in the world to be considered both a UNESCO World Heritage List site and also a part of the Memory of the World Program.

The ancient Hittite sphinx, a special statue from the ancient city of Hattusas, stands at the entrance of the Boğazkale Museum, Çorum, Turkey, April 19, 2021. (AA Photo)

Hattusas is also home to the first known written treaty in history in the form of a cease-fire agreement between the Hittites and Egyptians, called the Kadesh Peace Treaty.

The city is the source of many historical artifacts obtained in the archaeological excavations that have been going on for more than a century in the region, with most being exhibited in the Boğazkale Museum.

The Hittite Sphinx, a special kind of statue belonging to the royal family dating back to 1,300 B.C., could be considered the crowning jewel of the museum's exhibitions.

The limestone sphinx – 258 centimeters (101.5 inches) long, 175 centimeters wide and about 1,700 kilograms (3,747 pounds) in weight – greets its visitors at the entrance of the Boğazkale Museum.

The Ministry of Culture and Tourism brought it back to its homeland in 2011 after 94 years from Germany, where it was taken to be restored in 1917.

Kültepe

Finally, there is Kültepe – also known as Kanesh – which helped unearth history from a different angle with its thousands of clay tablets enlightening the trade and culture in Anatolia, a mere 4,000 years ago.

The first scientific excavations at the site began in 1948 under the leadership of Tahsin Özgüç. They have been ongoing for 73 years about 25 kilometers (15 miles) from the city center of central Turkey's Kayseri.

The ancient city of Kültepe, also known as Kanesh, located 25 kilometers (15 miles) from Kayseri, central Turkey, April 19, 2021. (AA Photo)

The cuneiform clay tablets unearthed in Kültepe – and exhibited in Ankara, Kayseri and Istanbul – present a history of Assyrian merchants traveling from around Mosul to Anatolia and accepting Kayseri as their capital, thus introducing the Anatolian people to trade and writing 4,000 years ago.

"The Assyrian merchants made trade in the region stretching from Eskişehir to Kütahya, from the lakes region to Samsun," Ankara University's Fikri Kulakoğlu said. He emphasized that the center established in Kayseri played an important role in opening Anatolia to the world.

"The Assyrians paid a part of the profits they earned from their trade here as a tax and ensured the development of local cities. The Assyrians enabled the Anatolian people to meet the global world of those times. At the end of this period, the Hittite Kingdom, which was the first state of Anatolia, was established," Kulakoğlu noted.

BY DAILY SABAH

Neolithic Cat Burial in Cyprus: The oldest known evidence of taming of cats!

The bones of a cat were found near human bones in a grave uncovered in Cyprus, dating from 7,500 to 7,000 years B.C., during excavations carried out under the supervision of Jean Guilaine of the Collège de France. Jean-Denis Vigne, CNRS research director, showed that this was the oldest known evidence of the taming of cats.

It is generally taken for granted that cat domestication began in Egypt, with the first clear evidence dating from 2,000 years B.C. French researchers writing in Science magazine show that the process actually began much earlier than that. The evidence comes from the Neolithic, or late stone age, village of Shillourokambos on Cyprus, which was inhabited from the 9th to the 8th millennia BC.

The cat is buried together with its "master", 3D reconstruction of the Early Aceramic Neolithic grave of Shillourokambos.

At the end of the 1980’s, the discovery of the jawbone of a cat on the island of Cyprus, at Khirokitia, in sediment from the Neolithic Age dating from more than 6,000 years B.C., had already suggested that the domestication of this species could have begun earlier and elsewhere than in Egypt.  The distance of the island of Cyprus from the continent and the absence of a local feline species during the Neolithic Age clearly implied that Neolithic populations had voluntarily introduced the animal to the island. 

Digs at the site of Shillourokambos, led by Jean Guilaine under the direction of the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus and the French School of Athens, have recently unearthed a burial site in which a cat and a human are associated.  It dates from 7,500 to 7,000 B.C. Not only is it older by almost one thousand years than the first evidence of the presence of the cat in Cyprus, but it leaves no doubt as to the existence of a strong association between humans and cats as of that time, at least at the symbolic level. The cat buried with the human was approximately eight months old and had almost reached its adult size.  The morphology of the skeleton suggests that it was a big cat, similar to wild cats found in the Near East today. The morphological modifications of the skeleton associated with domestication are not yet visible, justifying the use of the term “tamed”, rather than “domesticated”.

“This particular relationship between humans and cats could have begun at the very beginning of agriculture, when cats were attracted into the villages because mice came to eat the stored grain”, explains Jean-Denis Vigne.

The complete body of the animal was buried in a small pit at about twenty centimeters from the human grave. The tomb, particularly rich in offerings in comparison to other graves known from this period in Cyprus, suggests that the individual had a special social status. Τhis grave certainly bears witness to relationships between humans and cats in the 8th millennium B.C., not restricted to the material benefit of humans but also involved in spiritual links.

Photo of the discovery.

Domestication and taming 

Archaeozoologists generally use the word domestication when they have good evidence for morphological modifications such as the decrease of the general size or the shortening of the face and tooth raw. However, morphological modifications may not appear for some considerable time after the original association with man. We use the term ‘taming’ for the early history of the domestic cat when no morphological modification is visible. In addition this term, which has also been used by Malek for the same stage of domestication, fits well the status of cat as an ‘exploiting captive’. Cultural situation of Shillourokambos. The cultural characters of the late 9th millennium Shillourokambos archaeological assemblages are very similar to those of the mainland for the same period. Indeed, it has now been established that Cyprus was settled by Neolithic farmers from the continent who brought with them both crops and herds.

Brief description of the human burial 

The sub-circular (55 x 60 cm) grave was situated in the upper part of the archaeological deposits, just under the 25/30 cm thick arable ploughed earth. It had been dug into the remains of a mud building which dates to the middle phase of the occupation of Shillourokambos. It contained the complete skeleton in primary position of a human of 30 years of age or older; the body, which had partly collapsed during decomposition, had probably been buried in a bag, in a semi-sitting position, facing West; the arms were crossed against the chest and his legs completely folded. The list of the ten ceremonial items is as follows: a marine shell, a stone pendant, a very uncommon discoid flint scraper, two small polished axes (one of them broken), a pumice stone, a fragment of ochre, a large flint piercing tool, and several non-retouched flint blades and bladelets. This is the only burial with such a high number of offerings for the whole Preceramic and Aceramic Neolithic in Cyprus.

Description of the cat grave and skeleton 

The grave was oval (43 x 25 cm) and ca. 15cm deep. It was dug into and filled with the same archaeological layer as the human burial, at the same level and 20 cm away from its southeastern edge. A small asymmetric mound of sediment all along the North edge of the grave was probably composed of the packed down-products of the excavation of the grave, attesting man-made excavation. The cat skeleton was complete, except the last lumbar vertebra, sacrum, pelvis, possible baculum, tail bones and a few elements of the limb extremities. The missing parts were all situated at the highest level, suggesting that the complete body had been buried and that the uppermost parts were destroyed by ploughing; the skeleton laid on its left side, the head to the West and the back to the South, i.e., in the same orientation as that of the human skeleton; the head was bent backwards in relation to the neck; fore and rear limbs were grouped under the stomach, respectively backwards and forwards stretched, but the removal of the limb extremities precludes any explanation to this peculiar arrangement. The finds have been withdrawn as a block, for laboratory excavation and casting. The entire skeleton was articulated, a small amount of movement to the anatomical arrangement being due to collapse during the decomposition process. There is no indication about the origin of the death. Microscopic examination did not reveal any cut or burn marks. The absence of significant quantities of sediments between the right and left rib series indicates that the thoracic cavity had not been opened before the burial.

Though severely damaged, the skull was sufficiently well preserved to allow a good determination of the species among the different small felids of Western Asia, according to the morphological criteria which allow clear-cut distinctions between them. Lengths of the limbs long bones are much larger than the ones of historical and present-day domestic cats

(Source: “Early taming of the cat in Cyprus”, by J.-D. Vigne, J. Guilaine, K. Debue, L. Haye & P. Gérard)

3D reconstruction of Shillourokambos site.