Philosophy and Theology in Europe: From Synthesis to Separation

The relationship between philosophy and theology has been one of the most fruitful and complex in the history of European thought. From antiquity to the modern era, these two intellectual traditions have been in constant dialogue, sometimes reinforcing each other and sometimes clashing. The role that philosophy has played in shaping theological thought is undeniable, as is the influence of theology on the development of philosophy. Particularly in the Middle Ages, philosophy served as a means to understand and interpret religious faith, while from the Enlightenment onward, its gradual emancipation marked a profound transformation in Western intellectual tradition.

Philosophy as the Handmaid of Theology: A Tool for Theological Understanding

During the Middle Ages, philosophy was seen as an essential tool for theology. The concept of Ancilla Theologiae (“handmaid of theology”) highlighted the way in which philosophy was employed to reinforce theological principles, providing logical structure and systematic argumentation for religious doctrines.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was one of the most influential thinkers of this era, merging Aristotelian philosophy with Christian doctrine. His work, Summa Theologica, sought to reconcile faith and reason by arguing that divine truths can be partially comprehended through human reason, although revelation remains the ultimate authority. This synthesis formed the foundation of Thomism, which dominated medieval theology.

Other medieval scholars, such as Anselm of Canterbury, proposed philosophical arguments for God's existence, while figures like Boethius and John Duns Scotus contributed significantly to philosophical theology by refining theological and metaphysical concepts.

Medieval University Structures and the Dominance of Theology

The intimate relationship between philosophy and theology was institutionalized through the medieval university system. Leading institutions, including the Sorbonne, Oxford, and the University of Padua, prioritized theology as the highest academic discipline.

The education system was based on the Septem Artes Liberales, which included foundational disciplines meant to prepare students for theological studies. Among these, philosophy—especially logic—was a key tool for theologians, enabling them to construct rational defenses of religious dogma.

Furthermore, Neoplatonism, heavily influenced by Plato, played a crucial role in early Christian thought. Saint Augustine, one of the most prominent Church Fathers, adopted Neoplatonic ideas, emphasizing that the material world is secondary to the spiritual realm and that true knowledge is obtained through divine communion.

The Separation of Theology and Philosophy in the Enlightenment

The harmonious relationship between philosophy and theology began to dissolve in the 17th and 18th centuries with the rise of Enlightenment rationalism. Philosophers increasingly sought to base knowledge on empirical evidence and reason, distancing themselves from theological constraints.

Descartes’ skepticism, Spinoza’s pantheism, and Locke’s empiricism all contributed to this philosophical emancipation. Additionally, the Scientific Revolution, led by Galileo and Newton, established a mechanistic and empirical approach to understanding the natural world, further diminishing theology’s traditional authority.

Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason delivered a final blow to traditional metaphysics, arguing that theological claims could not be verified through pure reason.

The Contemporary Relationship Between Philosophy and Theology

Although philosophy and theology are now distinct academic fields, their dialogue persists in disciplines such as the philosophy of religion, ethics, and metaphysics. Theology remains deeply rooted in faith and revelation, while philosophy continues to explore questions about existence, morality, and the limits of human knowledge.

Despite their divergence, history demonstrates that philosophy and theology have never ceased influencing one another. Their interaction continues as they both seek to provide answers to the great existential and ethical dilemmas of humanity.

Was Plato a champion of Homosexuality?

Can one state an actual fact and yet be wrong in his conclusion? Well, this might be the case with western academics and the supposed championship of homosexuality by Plato.

Many propose that Plato was actually gay-friendly or even anti-heterosexual, basing their argument on some particular parts of his book Symposium. Indeed,in this book, Plato makes the argument that the best kind of love is between people of the same sex. However, these words were written about 2500 years ago, when social norms were fundamentally different from ours.

In the book Laws, Plato addresses the issue of same-sex copulation with the following passage:

“When the nature of male is in communion with that of the female for giving birth, the subsequent pleasure is thought to be according to nature, while that of man to man and woman to woman is against nature and those that commit to this (same sex copulation) they do so from incontinence to pleasures.”

As we see, Plato probably did not approve same-sex copulation. Instead, the contrary appears to be true.

His statement about same-sex love, though, remains unanswered. Why would he be advocating for same-sex love and still not agree with same-sex copulation? Doesn’t love lead to copulation anyway? According to him, no.

You see, Plato advocates that everything we see and feel with our senses is only a copy of something that is absolute, complete, and perfect. This is something he calls an idea. When one falls in love, he actually falls in love with the features and attributes of the person whose features and attributes resemble, to some extent, these ideas. This, in turn, means that people actually fall in love with ideas and not with people.

Under this scope, we may argue that every man (not only homosexuals) can fall in love with the beauty of another man and a woman with the beauty of another woman because they fall in love with beauty itself. We may think that we are in love with the person, but in reality, according to Plato, we long for them because they are portals to the actual objects of our love.

Does this kind of love lead to copulation?

Before we answer this question, we should remind ourselves that in Phaedrus (his second book about love and propaganda), Plato states that beauty is the idea that is the most obvious, and for that reason, it is adored by anyone. There are, however, other ideas that cause much more fierce love. These are justice, prudence, and purity.

Now, would any of us suffer from desperation because a just person refused to participate with us in carnal pleasures? Probably not. Perhaps we would suffer from them rejecting our social company, but probably we would not choose to cooperate with them only due to their virtue of justice. The answer thus is that love doesn’t have to do by default with copulation and carnal pleasures; it has to do by default with ideas (beauty, justice, prudence, purity, etc.).

Let us now return to our original question: what does he mean with his statements that same-sex love is the best kind of love?

As we saw above, he does that having in mind the love of ideas and not the love of bodily urges, which he argues people often mistake for true love. In the case of same-sex love, a man may not be driven by his urge to copulate, and thus, his love is pure, since this love is to the absolute and perfect and not to the body, which is in nature partial and imperfect.

Thus, as one may suspect, the relationship that Plato has in mind when he talks about same-sex love is none other than friendship. Of course, not all friendships are based on a common love for ideas, but those that are, Plato argues, are the best kind of love.

The Decline of Pythagoreanism: Factors Leading to Its Dissolution by the 3rd Century BC

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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How did Pythagoreanism end?

Pythagoras and the Pythagorean Philosophy

Pythagoras, a seminal figure in ancient Greek philosophy, founded a movement that was part philosophical school and part religious brotherhood. Born around 570 BCE, Pythagoras traveled widely before settling in Croton, a Greek colony in southern Italy, where he established his community. His teachings combined mystical religious beliefs with philosophical inquiry, which was a novel approach at the time.

The Pythagorean philosophy was notably distinct from other contemporary Greek thoughts due to its emphasis on mathematics as a universal language and a means to understand the cosmos. Pythagoras is famously credited with the formulation of the Pythagorean theorem, a fundamental principle in geometry that states that in a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. However, his influence extended beyond mathematics into the realms of music, astronomy, and ethics, illustrating the interconnectedness of all things through numbers.

Pythagorean way of Life

The Pythagoreans adopted a strict, ascetic, and communal lifestyle. Followers were expected to live an anti-hedonistic life, eschewing personal luxuries and living communally as a demonstration of their detachment from the materialistic desires of earthly existence. This communal living helped foster a strong sense of brotherhood and shared purpose among the members, which was central to their identity.

Moreover, Pythagoras and his followers practiced various forms of fasting and engaged in prophecies, reflecting their belief in the possibility of accessing higher spiritual truths. Pythagoras himself was credited with unusual psychic powers, which added to his mystique and the aura of divine wisdom that surrounded him. These practices not only bonded the group but also set them apart from the mainstream of Greek social life, contributing to their distinct communal identity.

Pythagoreans celebrate sunrise

Fyodor Bronnikov

Crisis of Earthly Life and Final Confessional Attitude

The Pythagoreans viewed earthly life as a temporary phase in the soul’s journey, emphasizing the need for spiritual purification and preparation for the afterlife. This worldview was deeply influenced by the notion of the transmigration of souls, a belief that the soul moves from one body to another across different lifetimes, which Pythagoras is said to have introduced to Greek thought.

This perspective fostered a confessional attitude among his followers, where moral and spiritual integrity were paramount. The final confession, a practice where members would confess their sins or wrongdoings to the group, was a method of maintaining moral accountability and cleansing the soul, which was critical for their spiritual evolution and preparation for the next life.

Pythagoras Emerging from the Underworld, 1662, Salvator Rosa (1615-1673)

Extermination and Absorption into Broader Philosophical Trends

A combination of internal weaknesses and external pressures contributed to the decline of Pythagoreanism, which ultimately resulted in its dissolution by the third century BC. Initially, the Pythagoreans faced direct persecution and violence, most notably during the 5th century BC, when the community in Croton was attacked and dispersed following political conflicts. This pattern of persecution continued across different regions, reflecting the political and social resistance against their esoteric and influential practices. Additionally, the inherently secretive nature of the Pythagorean community, which relied heavily on oral transmission of its doctrines, made the continuity of their teachings challenging once the communities were disbanded and their members scattered. The combination of these factors led to the gradual disappearance of Pythagoreanism as a distinct entity by the end of the 3rd century. However, the legacy of Pythagorean ideas continued to influence Western thought through the frameworks of later philosophical schools, ensuring that the essence of Pythagorean thought survived even as the movement itself faded.

Over time, as Greek philosophy evolved, many central ideas of Pythagoreanism were assimilated into emerging philosophical currents, particularly into Platonism and Neoplatonism. Concepts such as the transmigration of souls and the significance of numerical patterns in understanding the universe were integrated into these broader philosophical frameworks. This integration, while ensuring the survival of Pythagorean ideas, diluted the distinct identity of Pythagoreanism as these concepts became part of a larger philosophical dialogue. Additionally, the incorrect assignment and interpretation of Pythagorean teachings led to the loss of their unique philosophical identity. This was because the original ideas were absorbed and reinterpreted within the broad development of Greek thought.

The Philosopher Pythagoras, by Pietro Longhi, 1762-1763, via AKG-Images.com

The final phase of the decline coincided with significant shifts in the philosophical and religious landscape of the ancient world. By the 3rd century AD, the philosophical focus had shifted towards more practical concerns like ethics and personal conduct under the influence of Stoicism and, subsequently, the rise of Christianity. The Christian doctrine, while incorporating some elements of Hellenistic philosophies, opposed and replaced many of the pagan philosophies, including Pythagoreanism. The rise of Christianity, combined with the earlier integration of Pythagorean concepts into dominant philosophical schools, marked the end of Pythagoreanism as a distinct and influential force in the ancient world, transitioning its legacy into the foundations of Western thought.

The Quinta Essentia: Aristotle's Mysterious Fifth Element

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Aristotle, one of the most influential philosophers and scientists in human history, made significant contributions to a wide array of fields, including physics, biology, ethics, and political theory. However, his work in the realm of metaphysics – the study of the fundamental nature of reality – is perhaps one of his most intriguing contributions. Here, he proposed the concept of 'Quinta Essentia,' or the 'Fifth Element,' a concept that continues to fascinate scholars to this day.

Ancient Concepts of Matter

To understand the Quinta Essentia, it is necessary to first understand the ancient Greeks' understanding of matter. Long before the advent of modern chemistry and physics, the Greek philosophers posited that the universe was made up of four fundamental elements: earth, air, fire, and water. Each element was associated with a pair of the four fundamental qualities: hot, cold, wet, and dry. Earth was cold and dry, air was hot and wet, fire was hot and dry, and water was cold and wet. This theory is largely attributed to the pre-Socratic philosopher Empedocles, and it became the cornerstone of natural philosophy for centuries.

The Quinta Essentia

Aristotle, however, felt that these four elements were not enough to explain the complexity and diversity of the universe. In his view, there must be a fifth element – a Quinta Essentia or fifth essence – that existed beyond the terrestrial sphere.

This Fifth Element, according to Aristotle, was fundamentally different from the other four. While earth, air, fire, and water were subject to change and decay, the Quinta Essentia was eternal, unchanging, and incorruptible. It did not contain the contradictory qualities like hot and cold or wet and dry; it was purely itself. This quintessence was believed to be the element that made up the heavenly bodies, stars, and planets – the ethereal realm beyond our own.

The Influence of the Quinta Essentia

The concept of the Quinta Essentia had a profound impact on subsequent philosophical, religious, and scientific thought. Medieval alchemists adopted the idea, equating the Quinta Essentia with the elusive philosopher's stone, a substance thought to have the power to transmute base metals into gold and confer immortality.

In Christian philosophy, this fifth element was often associated with the divine, the soul, or the spirit. The idea that there was a substance beyond the physical that was unchanging and incorruptible fit well with Christian theology's concepts of the soul and God.

While modern atomic theory has supplanted the Aristotelian elements in the field of physics, the idea of a fundamental, indivisible, and unchanging "building block" of the universe has persisted in a new form: the atom. In this way, Aristotle's Quinta Essentia continues to echo in our modern understanding of the universe.

Conclusion

Aristotle's Quinta Essentia, or the 'Fifth Element,' represents a crucial part of ancient and medieval metaphysics. As a concept, it helped humanity grapple with the complexities of the universe and played a significant role in the development of various fields of thought. While the specifics of the theory have been replaced by modern scientific understanding, the fundamental question Aristotle was trying to answer—what is the universe made of, and how does it work?—continues to drive human inquiry into the nature of reality.

Nine Career-boosting Advices from the Ancient Sages

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Can the ideas of the past advance your career? In response, Patrick Kidd, dean of a prestigious business school in Madrid, offers a primer written by The Times of London. Kidd advises "future tycoons" to put down books on modern human resource management and instead study classical philosophy. "The timeless principles of Aristotle and Cicero serve as the cornerstone of a successful career. Everyone who wants to be truly successful at work can better prepare themselves by following these guidelines, "he claims. This is a beginner's manual based on Greek and Latin wisdom for people who do not have the time to sift through ancient books but nevertheless wish to achieve Since, in the words of Socrates, "I know one thing, that I know nothing,"

1. "A great book is like a great evil."

The poet and epigrammatist Callimachus, from Alexandria, is credited with coming up with the saying. He lived from 310 to 240 BC. It is thought to be a critique of authors of lengthy epic poems who failed to emulate Homer and implies that "a fat book is a tremendous evil." Today, it can be utilized in the workplace by someone who needs to justify, for instance, why it took them four weeks to prepare a three-page report.

2. "Accipe quam primum, brevis est occasio lucri."

Take advantage of the opportunity to win because it won't wait long for you, wrote the Roman poet and epigrammatist Marcus Valerius Martialis in one of his 12 books of epigrams. Because the Roman poet essentially encapsulated the idea of predatory capitalism in today's terms in just seven words, Kidd wrote of him, "He would tweet in surprise today."

3. "Merses profundo, evenit pulchrior"

One may roughly translate the Horace remark as "One must plunge deep to see something more beautiful come to light." The adage could be applied to modern life in the sense that you should dare if you want to succeed.

4. "Aièn Aristeein"

It refers to "ever excelling" and being superior to others. It is a Homeric term that conveys the deeply ingrained yearning for unquestionable superiority and personal distinction among people of the Homeric period. To constantly be first and finest is what it means. According to legend, Alexander the Great kept a copy of Homer's "Iliad" under his pillow as he slept so he could learn from it as he planned his military operations.

This particular piece of advice appears to have been provided by Peleus to his son Achilles before he went to Troy. Hippolochus offered the same counsel to his son Glaucus, who was in charge of the Lycians and a rival of the Achaeans. Glaucus boasted that his ancestors had always encouraged him to be better than others when he subsequently encountered the Greek Diomedes outside the walls of Troy.

But Diomedes argued that their grandfathers were friends and offered to trade armor as a peace offering. Aedes Telamonius eventually killed Glaucus on the battlefield, demonstrating that boasting about one's abilities does not protect them. In the Greek world, this aphorism came to represent the fundamental moral standard.

Many outstanding accomplishments, both individual and collective, can be attributed to this principle. This adage, however, was also a major contributor to rivalry, division, and uncontrolled ambition.

5. "If"

Invading the Peloponnese in the 4th century B.C., Philip II of Macedonia wrote to the Spartans to inquire "if they would embrace him as a friend or as an enemy." The Peloponnesians, according to Plutarch, neutrally retorted, "that they had no intention of receiving him as a friend or an adversary." When they responded, Philip became outraged and sent another message, warning them that they would become slaves forever if he won the war. He was silenced by the Spartans' succinct response: "If," which they gave without using any unnecessary words, as everyone who aspires to be successful in whatever line of work should.

6. "Education has a bitter root but a pleasant fruit."

Years of labor are worth much in the end, says the adage's purported originator, Aristotle, who did not have Spartan laconicity. Yet every successful professional should keep this proverb in mind, according to his biographer, Diogenes Laertius. Aeschylus holds a similar philosophical stance: "Knowledge comes from suffering."

7. "Omnia mea mecum porto"

The expression is, "What is mine, I carry with me." It was first used by Cicero to express Priene's preconceived assumption that wisdom and virtue were the only things required. Bias of Priene, one of the seven sages of ancient Greece, might just as easily be discussing his smartphone right now!

8. "Step away from my light."

Alexander the Great wished to meet Diogenes the Cynic when he was in Corinth in 336 BC, leading the Panhellenic Convention, according to Plutarch. The philosopher responded to his question about whether he needed anything by saying, "Stand out of my light," which roughly translates to, "Step back a little since you are blocking the sun from me." When saying goodbye, Alexander is credited with saying, "If I were Diogenes, I would gladly be Alexander." Many contemporary historians, however, question the veracity of this story and believe it to be a later invention of the Macedonian ruler. But take care—this statement might not be well received by all of your supervisors.

9. “Non quia difficilia sunt non audemus, sed quia non audemus difficilia sunt.”

This idiom, attributed to the Roman philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca, means: "Not that we are afraid to attempt difficult tasks. They are challenging because we are afraid to attempt them ". Liz Truss, a former British prime minister, used this passage in her resignation letter after serving just seven weeks. Perhaps the philosopher's other proverb, "The one who does not recognize his faults will not rectify them," is more appropriate: "Nam qui peccare se nescit, corrigi non vult."

Sun Tzu's Quotes which are better to be known when young to not Regret in Old Age

Sun Tzu was a Chinese general, military strategist, writer, and philosopher. Sun Tzu is traditionally credited as the author of The Art of War, an influential work of military strategy that has affected both Western and East Asian philosophy and military thinking. Sun Tzu's works focus much more on alternatives to battle, such as stratagem, delay, the use of spies and alternatives to war itself.

1 Hour Of The Greatest Motivational Quotes From History

This video is a 1 hour compilation of the greatest quotes from the Stoics, Socrates, and other thinkers spanning our history and geography. Watch the video for more!

Ancient Greek Philosophers' Life Lessons for a Life Without Regrets

In the video below we will be going through ancient Greek philosophers’ life lessons for a life without regrets. Watch the video for more and enjoy!

2000 Year Old Stoic Rules For Life

Stoicism and Stoic philosophy have been around for thousands of year. Founded by Zeno of Citium, the original Stoics used to gather in Athens to discuss the best ways to live a good life, and how to remain resilient while enduring hardship and adversity.

Since then many Stoics have come and gone, but very little of the ancient Stoic literature still exists, and modern Stoicism is a built upon fragments of work alongside the writing of Epictetus, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius.

This is a compilation and collection of Stoic quotes and philosophy to help spread the value that's been applied for thousands of years.

Ancient Chinese Philosophers' Life Lessons Men Learn Too Late In Life

The wisdom of the ancient philosophers is valuable information that humanity especially needs now. It is good to know that some of these lessons will really change one's life for the better or lead to deep reflection.

Confucius Quotes about life that still ring true today! Life changing quotes

Confucius was a philosopher, poet, and statesman of the Spring and Autumn Period in China, traditionally regarded as a model of Chinese sages. In the following video we will be going through Confucius Quotes about life that still ring true today!

The Life and Work of the Multi-scientist and great Philosopher Aristotle

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by the archaeologist editor group

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Since the evidence gathered by archaeologists is so abundant that many speak of the discovery of Aristotle's tomb in ancient Stageira, let us look at what we know about this great philosopher.

According to what we know, he was born in Stageira in 384 BC and died in Chalkida in 322 BC. At the age of 17 he entered Plato's Academy in Athens, where he remained until the age of 37. There he is associated with Plato himself as well as with Eudoxus, Xenocrates, and other thinkers.

His works relate to many sciences, such as physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics, etc., and form the first comprehensive system of Western philosophy. The period of maturity begins with biological research, the results of which constitute the first systematization of biological phenomena in Europe. Aristotle's thought and teachings, briefly referred to as Aristotelianism, influenced philosophical, theological and scientific thought for centuries until the late Middle Ages.

Life and action

Aristotle was born in 384 BC in the ancient city of Stageira in Halkidiki, 55 kilometers east of modern Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was physician to the Macedonian king Amyntas III, who was Philip's father. Nicomachus, who according to the Suidae Lexicon had written six books on medicine and one on physics, considered the Homeric hero and physician Mahaon, son of Asclepius, as his ancestor. His mother Phaestia was from Chalkida and, like his father, belonged to the family of the Asclepiads. Aristotle's interest in biology was sparked in part by his father, as the Asclepiads taught their children anatomy from an early age; it is also said that Aristotle sometimes helped his father when he was young.

Aristotle was prematurely orphaned by his father and mother, and his guardianship was taken over by a friend of his father's, Proxenus, who had settled in Atarneus of Aeolis in Asia Minor, opposite of Lesbos. Proxenus, who cared for Aristotle as if he were his own child, sent him to Athens at the age of 17 (367 BC) to become a student of Plato. In fact, Aristotle studied at Plato's Academy for 20 years (367 - 347), until the year his teacher died. In the Academy environment, he amazed everyone and even his teacher with his intelligence and philanthropy. Plato called it the "dissertation spirit" and the house of the "reader's house".

When Plato died in 347 B.C., the question arose of a successor in the leadership of the school. Precedence for the post was given to Plato's three best students, Aristotle, Xenocrates, and Speusippus. Aristotle then left Athens with Xenocrates and settled in Assos, a city on the Asia Minor beach, opposite of Lesbos. Assos was then ruled by two Platonic philosophers, Erastos and Koriskos, to whom the ruler of Atarneas and old student of Plato and Aristotle, Hermias, had left the city. The two friends, governors of Assos, had founded a philosophical school there as a branch of the Academy.

In Assos, Aristotle taught for three years and, together with his friends, achieved what Plato could not. They were closely associated with Hermias and influenced him so that his tyranny became milder and more just. But the end of the tyrant was tragic. Because he anticipated the Macedonian campaign in Asia, he allied himself with Philip. Therefore, the Persians captured him and left him to die on a martyr's cross.

In 345 BC, on the advice of his student Theophrastus, Aristotle crossed to Lesbos and settled in Mytilene, where he stayed and taught until 342 BC. In the meantime, he had married the niece and stepdaughter of Hermias, Pythiada, with whom he had a daughter who took her mother's name. After the death of his first wife, Aristotle was later in Athens with Herpyllida from Stageira, with whom he had a son, Nicomachus. In 342 B.C. he was invited by Philip to Macedonia to take charge of the education of his son Alexander, who was then only 13 years old. Aristotle eagerly set about the task of educating the young heir. He took care to instill in him the Panhellenic spirit and used the Homeric epics as an educational tool. Alexander's education took place sometimes in Pella and sometimes in Mieza, a city whose ruins have been brought to light by archeological excavation; it was located at the foot of the mountain on which today's Naoussa in Macedonia is built. There he was informed of the death of Hermias in 341 BC.

Aristotle remained at the Macedonian court for six years. When Alexander crushed the resistance of the Thebans and restored peace in southern Greece, Aristotle went to Athens (335 BC) and founded his own philosophical school there. For the foundation of his school he chose the Gymnasium, also called Lyceum, between Lycabettus and Ilissos, near the Dioharis Gate. The site of the Gymnasium was recently discovered during the excavations for the construction of the new Goulandris Museum behind the Byzantine Museum of Athens in Rigillis Street. This historic excavation site is currently being renovated so that it can be visited. There was a grove dedicated to Apollo and the Muses. With the money generously given to him by Alexander, Aristotle erected magnificent buildings and arcades called "Peripatoi"(walks in Greek). Perhaps that is why his school was called "Peripatetic school" and his students "Peripatetic Philosophers".

The school was organized according to the standards of the Platonic Academy. Classes for advanced students were held in the morning ("eothinos peripatos") and for beginners in the afternoon ("peri to deilinon", "evening walk"). The morning classes were purely philosophical ("auditory"). The afternoon "rhetorical" and "external".

The school had a large library and was so well organized that it later served as a model for the founding of the libraries of Alexandria and Pergamon. Aristotle collected maps and tools useful for teaching physics. Thus, the school soon became a famous center of scientific research. In the thirteen years that Aristotle spent in Athens, he created most of his work, which by its scope and quality evokes our admiration. For it is quite amazing how a single person could gather and record so much information in such a short period of time.

When the news of Alexander's death arrived in 323 BC, the supporters of the anti-Macedonian party thought they had found in Aristotle an opportunity to take revenge on the Macedonians. The priesthood, represented by the hierophant of the Eleusinian Demeter, Eurymedon, and the school of Isocrates with Demophilus accused Aristotle of blasphemy ("blasphemous writing") for erecting an altar to Hermias, writing the Hymn to Areti(Virtue), and the epigram on the statue of Hermes at Delphi. However, realizing the true motives and intentions of his accusers, Aristotle traveled to Chalkida before his trial (323 BC). He stayed there in the house he had received from his mother, together with his second wife Herpyllida and his two children Nikomachos and Pythias.

Aristotle died in Chalkida between the 1st and 2nd of October of the year 322 B.C. of a stomach disease, in sadness and melancholy. His body was taken to Stageira, where he was buried with great honors. His fellow citizens declared him an "inhabitant" of the city and erected an altar over his grave. In his memory they established a festival, the "Aristoteleia", and named one of the months "Aristoteleios". The square where he was buried became the seat of the Parliament.

When he left Athens, he left the direction of the school to his pupil Theophrastus, whom he considered most suitable. Thus, the intellectual institution of Aristotle continued to radiate even after the death of the great teacher.

The work of the author

The Alexandrians estimated that Aristotle wrote a total of about 400 books. Diogenes Laertius calculated his work in verse and found that it amounted to 45 myriads, exactly 445,270 verses. A large part of his work has been lost. It belonged to the category of public or "external" courses and was written in a dialogic form. Of them, only the State of Athens has been preserved in a papyrus found in Egypt. The works that survive today correspond to the lessons that Aristotle gave to his advanced students, which are described as "auditory or esoteric". Therefore, they are written in continuous speech rather than dialogs. The list of Hesychius (appended to the biography of Aristotle) contains 197 titles of works and essentially coincides with the list of Diogenes Laertes.

The Philosophy of Aristotle

Aristotle, a towering figure in ancient Greek philosophy, has left an indelible mark on the intellectual landscape of the West. Born in 384 BCE in Stagira, a small town on the northeastern coast of Greece, he was a student of Plato and later became the tutor of Alexander the Great. Aristotle's contributions span across various fields, including metaphysics, ethics, politics, aesthetics, rhetoric, and biology, reflecting his profound interest in comprehensively understanding the world.

Empirical Approach and the Four Causes

Unlike his teacher Plato, who emphasized the world of forms or ideas as the most real, Aristotle grounded his philosophy in the physical world. He believed that knowledge begins with sensory experience and that by observing the natural world, one can uncover the principles underlying reality. Central to his thought is the theory of the four causes, which he introduced as a framework to explain the existence and change of things:

• The “material cause” refers to the substance out of which something is made.

• The formal cause is the essence or blueprint that defines a thing's nature.

• The “efficient cause” is the agent or force that brings something into being.

• The “final cause” is the purpose or end for which a thing exists.

This framework allows Aristotle to explore the principles of change and causality in the natural world, providing a comprehensive understanding that influences subsequent scientific and philosophical inquiry.

Ethics and the Concept of Virtue

Aristotle's ethical theory, primarily outlined in his works "Nicomachean Ethics" and "Eudemian Ethics," centers on the concept of virtue and the pursuit of the good life. For Aristotle, the highest good for humans is eudaimonia, often translated as happiness or flourishing. This state is achieved not through the accumulation of wealth or honors but through the practice of virtue.

Virtue, according to Aristotle, is a mean between two extremes of excess and deficiency, relative to us. It is a habit or disposition developed through deliberate choice and consistent practice. Aristotle distinguishes between intellectual virtues, which include wisdom and understanding, and moral virtues, such as courage, temperance, and justice. A virtuous life is one of rational activity in accordance with virtue, which leads to the fulfillment of a human being's potential.

Politics and the Role of the State

In his "Politics," Aristotle extends his ethical considerations to the realm of the polis, or city-state, arguing that the state exists naturally and is necessary for the achievement of the good life. For Aristotle, humans are "political animals" who naturally seek to live in a community. The state's role is to foster a good and just society that enables its citizens to live virtuously and achieve eudaimonia.

Aristotle envisions a mixed government that combines elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, believing that such a balance would prevent the corruption of power and ensure the common good. His political theory emphasizes the importance of the middle class in maintaining stability and justice within the state.

Logic and Scientific Method

Aristotle's contributions to logic and the development of the scientific method are foundational. His "Organon," a collection of works on logic, introduces syllogism, a form of deductive reasoning that has influenced the structure of scientific inquiry and intellectual discourse for centuries. Aristotle's approach to science combines observation with logical analysis, laying the groundwork for empirical research and the categorization of knowledge.

Legacy and Influence

Aristotle's impact on Western thought is profound and enduring. His works became the basis of medieval scholasticism and deeply influenced Islamic philosophy, the Renaissance, and the scientific revolution. Aristotle's method of categorizing knowledge, his empirical approach to science, and his exploration of logic and ethics continue to be integral to modern philosophy, demonstrating the enduring relevance of his pursuit of wisdom.

In sum, Aristotle's philosophy represents a monumental effort to systematize knowledge and understand the principles governing the natural and human worlds. His work bridges the gap between the metaphysical and the practical, offering insights into ethics, politics, science, and logic that remain relevant and compelling today.

Aristotle's Quotes you should know before you Get Old

Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition.Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him.

These are vivid sayings and quotes from Aristotle. The best quotes and aphorisms of Aristotle that will make you think about many things in life. Life quotes from Aristotle are definitely worth your time.

Forbidden Aristotle Quotes That Can Inspire Greatness and Instill Wisdom

Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition.Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him.

These are vivid sayings and quotes from Aristotle. The best quotes and aphorisms of Aristotle that will make you think about many things in life. Life quotes from Aristotle are definitely worth your time.

The philosophy of Plato

Plato, a towering figure in the history of Western philosophy, left an indelible mark on the fabric of philosophical thought through his exploration of reality, ethics, politics, and the human condition. Born in Athens around 428 BCE, Plato was a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle, forming the foundation of what would later be recognized as the great triad of ancient Greek philosophy. His works, predominantly written as dialogues, not only provide insights into his philosophical musings but also offer a window into the intellectual life of ancient Athens.

The Theory of Forms

One of Plato's most significant contributions to philosophy is his Theory of Forms. This metaphysical framework posits that the material world, accessible through our senses, is only a shadow of a more real and unchanging world of forms or ideas. According to Plato, everything in the physical world is an imperfect representation of these perfect, immutable forms. For example, a beautiful painting is merely a reflection of the form of beauty itself. This distinction between the world of appearances and the world of forms lays the groundwork for understanding the nature of reality and knowledge.

The Allegory of the Cave

Plato's Allegory of the Cave, found in Book VII of "The Republic," is a powerful metaphor for the human condition and the philosopher's quest for truth. In this allegory, Plato describes people living in a cave, their backs to the entrance, watching shadows projected on a wall from objects passing in front of a fire behind them. These shadows represent the world of appearances; the real objects that cast the shadows symbolize the forms. The philosopher is likened to a prisoner who escapes the cave and, after initial pain and confusion, comes to understand the true nature of reality upon seeing the sun. This allegory illustrates Plato's belief in the philosopher's role to seek knowledge of the forms and to enlighten others still trapped in the cave of ignorance.

The Tripartite Theory of the Soul

Plato also delved into the nature of the soul, proposing a tripartite structure in "The Republic." He divides the soul into three parts: the rational, the spirited, and the appetitive. The rational part seeks truth and wisdom; the spirited part is responsible for our emotions and desires; and the appetitive part governs our basic needs and desires. For Plato, a just and moral life is achieved when these three parts are in harmony, with reason guiding the soul.

Political Philosophy

Plato's political philosophy, primarily articulated in "The Republic," advocates for a state ruled by philosopher-kings. He believed that only those who have achieved a deep understanding of the forms and possess a well-balanced soul are fit to rule. Plato envisioned a hierarchical society divided into three classes: the rulers (philosopher-kings), the auxiliaries (warriors), and the producers (farmers, artisans, etc.). This vision reflects his belief in a society governed by wisdom and justice, rather than power and ambition.

Legacy and Influence

Plato's influence on Western thought cannot be overstated. His work laid the groundwork for many areas of philosophy, including epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and politics. Through his Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world, Plato also played a crucial role in the development of educational traditions. His dialogues continue to be studied for their methodological approach, literary merit, and deep philosophical insights.

In conclusion, Plato's philosophy offers a profound exploration of the nature of reality, the pursuit of wisdom, and the organization of society. His ideas challenge us to reflect on the essence of virtue, the pursuit of knowledge, and the structure of our communities. Plato's work remains a cornerstone of philosophical inquiry, inspiring generations of thinkers to ponder the fundamental questions of life and the universe.

Why Socrates Hated Democracy

Socrates: The Intellectual Critique of Democracy

In the annals of history, few figures have sparked as much debate and introspection about the nature of governance as Socrates, the ancient Greek philosopher. His critique of democracy, as detailed in the video "Why Socrates Hated Democracy," offers a profound exploration of the philosophical skepticism that surrounded democratic principles in classical Athens. This article aims to dissect Socrates' arguments against democracy, drawing insights from the video to understand why a philosopher who lived in what is often hailed as the cradle of democracy harbored such pessimism towards it.

The Skeptical Philosophy of Ancient Greece

The Parthenon, a symbol of democratic values, stands in stark contrast to the critical eye with which Greek philosophy viewed democracy. Socrates, a figure central to this philosophical tradition, questioned the very foundation of democratic governance. His skepticism, shared by his student Plato, was not an outright rejection of democracy's ideals but a nuanced critique of its execution and underlying principles.

Plato's Allegory and the Flaws of Democracy

Plato, through the allegory of the ship in "The Republic," illustrates the flaws he and Socrates saw in democracy. This allegory questions the wisdom of allowing the unskilled to navigate the ship of state, proposing instead that only those with the necessary knowledge and virtue—philosopher-kings—should lead. Socrates extended this critique to the process of voting, arguing that it should not be an uninformed choice but a skill developed through systematic education.

The Trial of Socrates: A Case Study in Democratic Failure

Socrates' execution, a consequence of his alleged corruption of Athenian youth, serves as a historical example of the pitfalls of democratic judgment. His trial and subsequent death by hemlock highlight the dangers of mob rule and the potential for democracy to turn against its most insightful critics.

Intellectual Democracy versus Birthright Democracy

Socrates envisioned an "intellectual democracy," where the right to vote was contingent upon rational thought and deep consideration of issues. This stance is not an elitist dismissal of the common man's capacity but a call for a democracy supported by education and wisdom, aiming to prevent the ascent of demagogues who could lead the polis astray.

The Warning Against Demagogues

The figure of Alcibiades in ancient Athens exemplifies Socrates' warnings. A charismatic leader who led Athens into catastrophic military ventures, Alcibiades represents the dangers of allowing persuasive, yet unwise, individuals to gain power through populist appeal. Socrates feared that democracy, without the safeguard of education, could too easily fall prey to those offering simple solutions to complex problems.

The Essential Role of Education

Socrates' critique culminates in the assertion that democracy's success is inherently linked to the strength of its education system. Without fostering a populace capable of discerning truth from rhetoric and wisdom from folly, democracy risks devolving into a contest of popularity rather than a governance of the informed.

Socrates' Enduring Legacy

The philosophical skepticism of Socrates towards democracy invites contemporary societies to reflect on the nature of their own governance systems. It suggests that democracy, to be truly effective, requires more than the mere act of voting; it demands an electorate that is educated, rational, and deeply engaged with the issues of the day. In this light, Socrates' critique is not a rejection of democracy per se but a call to elevate it through the cultivation of wisdom and virtue among its citizens. As we navigate the complexities of modern democratic governance, the insights of a philosopher from ancient Athens remain as relevant as ever, urging us to consider not only our rights as citizens but also our responsibilities.

Wise Ancient Greek Philosophers Quotes to Make You a Better Person!

Here are some quotes from wise Ancient Greek philosophers that will definitely make you a better person. Enjoy!

Aristotle's Quotes which are better Known in Youth to Not to Regret in Old Age

Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him.

Seneca's Quotes which are better to be known when young to not Regret in Old Age

Seneca was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and, in one work, satirist, from the post-Augustan age of Latin literature.

This video is quotes from Seneca. This quotes compilation is made of his best quotes and we hope that these life quotes can make you think about many things in your life. Seneca's quotes are definitely worth your time. Enjoy!