Six Questions for a World That Seems to Be Losing Interest in Democracy

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By Colin Greer

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What do we know, and what can we support, about the following?

1. The Psychology of the Scarcity Experience

Humans across all evolutionary forms have faced scarcity—from the impact of weather on the food supply to competition with nonhuman animals for food and shelter.

The experience of material scarcity of this scale generated an individual psychological dynamic and societal reflex of fear and loss. The perennial uncertainty of survival was also magnified by interhuman aggression, conflict, and hierarchy.

2. Historical and Transhistorical Trauma

What we call trauma—emergency response, risk, and loss—follows and has a multigenerational impact on individuals, families, social groups, and nations that is carried into all lives through the imposition of extreme fight-or-flight-response-triggered behaviors.

These dynamics inform the tendency in humans to impose a “scarcity experience” on nonmaterial scarcity situations. The scarcity experience has permeated across history into our institutions, conventions, expectations, and beliefs.

3. Variety Within the Human Population

Add to the uneven distribution of inherited trauma (and social responses to the scarcity experience) the genetic differences of human populations, which are combinations of distinct groups of human ancestors, and we can be sure that just as there are demonstrated physical markers of difference among populations with regard to biological systems, there are also key behavioral markers.

Understanding these behavioral markers may help unpack the crisis of legitimacy facing democratic nations, in which extreme partisanship regarding values and politics has produced culture wars. Legitimacy and illegitimacy are essentially about the conflict between bonding nests of insular common sense, fear, blame, belief, and expectation.

4. The Uneven ‘Fight-or-Flight’ Response

These traumatic experiences have been unevenly distributed over populations and individuals over time and geography. This might be a part of the explanation for the fight-or-flight polarity of behaviors seen in the human population in response to fear, risk, and danger. The responses can produce a wide range of social environments, from calm and cooperative to conflictual and antagonistic.

5. Negative/Positive Human Bonding

“Good enough” bonding is key to cooperative and considerate social relations and an overall society based on goodwill.

We know that when life is uncertain—when birthing and infancy are high-risk and death is so common that the naming of children was often delayed—blame for loss is rampant, and, as a result, multiple complex patterns of bonding fractures replace bonding with longing (selfishness, greed, violence, blame, and hoarding) in likely individual and group behavior.

All this is processed through personal and cultural temperaments, and so a fairly wide range of action, values, and empathy exists and can be exaggerated in one or another direction—a sense of kin, widely or narrowly shared.

6. The Uneven History of Human Collaboration

There is widespread evidence stretching over centuries in different parts of the planet of goodwill and visions of shared well-being, of cooperative discourse and reparative ideals that might be called on with new vigor. These have long aimed to counter the dominance of extreme fight-or-flight/scarcity panic psychology, blaming and maiming communication and political engagement in the long and ongoing story of human society.

Making Use of It

Perhaps this perspective on scarcity and bonding can help us see ourselves differently and find our way.

Currently, we are witnessing the failure of the historic progressive agenda and a dramatic decline in the legitimacy of democracy as a governing ideal.

At the same time, the right wing has, for over 50 years, rooted itself in key political positions and popularized regressive ideas and ideals through coercion, shaming, and exclusivity.

The power of the right is based on having gained the trust of people. As the public has lost its sense of higher purpose, the progressive agenda has become delegitimized. Ironically, rich people are lionized by working people—despite the damage to their own lives—because wealth stands for strength and prospect.

The damaging philosophy of neoliberalism has morphed into something more sinister. We are witnessing the capture of the public sphere by dangerous politicians promoting destructive ideologies, often built on lies and disinformation. These ideologies have led to a worldwide spread of authoritarianism, which some argue is a zeitgeist more capable than democracy for handling economic, environmental, and social crises. How do we shape a democratic future while living in a zeitgeist that is tightening its grip across the globe?

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Author Bio: Colin Greer is the president of the New World Foundation. He was formerly a CUNY professor, a founding editor of Social Policy magazine, a contributing editor at Parade magazine for almost 20 years, and the author and coauthor of several books on public policy. He is the author of three books of poetry, including most recently Defeat/No Surrender.

This article was produced by Human Bridges, a project of the Independent Media Institute.

Life 6000 Years Ago: What was happening in history 6000 years ago?

Around 6000 years ago, humanity stood on the threshold of a transformative era known as the Neolithic period, marking the dawn of civilization as we understand it today. Across various regions of the world, from the fertile river valleys of Mesopotamia and the Nile to the vast plains of China and the Indus, early human societies were undergoing profound changes.

The transition from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled agricultural communities laid the groundwork for the emergence of complex civilizations. As communities mastered the art of farming, cultivating crops and domesticating animals, they unlocked the potential for surplus food production, population growth, and the establishment of permanent settlements.

This pivotal moment in human history set in motion a series of developments that would shape the trajectory of human civilization for millennia to come, laying the foundation for urbanization, technological innovation, cultural expression, and societal organization.

Here are some key features of civilization during that time:

1. Agriculture: Agriculture was undergoing a transformative phase. Communities were transitioning from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled agricultural practices. This transition, known as the Neolithic Revolution, occurred independently in various regions around the world. People began cultivating crops such as wheat, barley, rice, and millet, as well as domesticating animals like cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. This shift allowed for a more reliable food supply, leading to population growth and the establishment of permanent settlements.

2. Urbanization: Urban centers began to emerge as populations grew and settlements expanded. Mesopotamia, often referred to as the cradle of civilization, witnessed the rise of cities like Uruk, Ur, and Eridu. These cities were characterized by dense populations, complex social structures, and centralized administration. Similarly, in the Nile Valley, cities like Memphis and Thebes flourished along the banks of the Nile River, supported by the fertile soil and abundant resources.

3. Writing: Writing systems were in their nascent stages of development. In Mesopotamia, the Sumerians invented cuneiform script, one of the earliest known writing systems, around 3500 BC. Initially used for record-keeping and administrative purposes, cuneiform later evolved into a medium for literature, law, and religion. In Egypt, hieroglyphic writing emerged around the same time, primarily inscribed on temple walls and monuments to commemorate pharaohs and religious rituals.

4. Social Organization: Early civilizations were characterized by hierarchical social structures. Society was stratified, with rulers, nobles, priests, and bureaucrats comprising the elite class, while farmers, artisans, and laborers made up the majority of the population. In Mesopotamia, for example, the king held absolute power and was considered the intermediary between the gods and the people. The Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest legal codes, provided a framework for governance and justice in Babylonian society.

5. Technological Advancements: Innovations in technology revolutionized daily life. The invention of the wheel, around 3500 BC, facilitated transportation and trade, while the development of irrigation systems allowed for efficient agriculture in arid regions like Mesopotamia and Egypt. Metallurgy advanced with the use of copper, bronze, and eventually iron, leading to the production of tools, weapons, and jewelry. Pottery became more sophisticated, serving utilitarian and decorative purposes.

6. Religion and Belief Systems: Religion played a central role in early civilizations, shaping cultural practices, societal norms, and political institutions. Polytheistic belief systems prevailed, with gods and goddesses associated with natural forces, celestial bodies, and aspects of human life. In Mesopotamia, the Enuma Elish, the Babylonian creation myth, recounted the struggle between primordial forces and the emergence of the cosmos. Similarly, in Egypt, the cults of Ra, Osiris, and Isis were central to religious life, offering hope for an afterlife and divine protection.

7. Trade and Exchange: Trade networks expanded as civilizations interacted with neighboring regions. Mesopotamian merchants traded goods such as grain, textiles, and luxury items along river routes and overland caravan routes. In Egypt, the Nile River served as a vital artery for trade, connecting the Mediterranean coast with the interior of Africa. The exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices fostered economic growth, technological diffusion, and cultural exchange.

8. Art and Architecture: Early civilizations produced remarkable works of art and architecture that reflected their cultural achievements and beliefs. In Mesopotamia, monumental structures like ziggurats served as temples dedicated to patron gods, while palaces and city walls showcased architectural innovation and artistic craftsmanship. In Egypt, the construction of pyramids, temples, and statues honored pharaohs and immortalized their divine status. Artistic expression flourished in various forms, including sculpture, painting, relief carving, and decorative arts.

Around 6000 years ago, these early civilizations laid the foundation for complex societies that would shape the course of human history for millennia to come. Through agricultural innovation, urban development, technological advancement, cultural expression, and religious devotion, ancient peoples forged the fabric of civilization, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to influence contemporary society.

Alexander the Great and the Gordian Knot

Unlocking the Legend:

In the annals of ancient lore, the Gordian Knot stands as a symbol of both enigma and resolution, its legend intricately woven into the tapestry of history. Rooted in the heart of Phrygia, this fabled knot tethered not just an oxcart, but the aspirations of those who dared to conquer it.

The Tale Unfolds

The story begins in Phrygia, where a kingdom awaited a ruler. Fate, in its capricious dance, decreed that the next to arrive driving an ox-cart would ascend the throne. Thus, Gordias, a humble farmer, unwittingly became king, his son Midas later immortalized in mythos for his golden touch.

Grateful for the gods' favor, Midas dedicated the ox-cart to Sabazios, the Phrygian deity intertwined with Zeus. Yet, it was not the cart itself, but the knot that bound it, which stirred the echoes of destiny. A complex entanglement of cornel bark, so tightly knit that its solution seemed beyond mortal grasp, guarded the cart.

Enter Alexander the Great

By the time Alexander the Great strode into history's embrace, Phrygia had bowed to Persian dominion. But amidst the ruins of a once-proud kingdom, the Gordian Knot endured as a testament to sovereignty foretold. An oracle whispered of Asia's mastery awaiting the knot's unraveler, beckoning Alexander to the challenge.

Here, the tale diverges, like tributaries of a river seeking their own course through the land of myth. Some say Alexander, faced with the knot's defiance, cleaved it asunder with the edge of his sword, a bold stroke of defiance against the riddles of fate. Others speak of a subtler solution, where the linchpin yielded to his touch, unveiling the secrets of the knot without sundering its strands.

Symbolism and Significance

Beyond its surface, the Gordian Knot intertwines with deeper threads of meaning, weaving a tapestry of interpretation. Scholars ponder its origins, questioning whether it guarded a sacred cipher or echoed the whispers of a divine name. Perhaps, as Robert Graves mused, it symbolized the enigmatic essence of Dionysus, passed down through generations to the chosen stewards of Phrygia.

Yet, amidst these scholarly musings, the knot's true significance emerges. It becomes a symbol of legitimacy, a cipher of dynastic change etched in the annals of Anatolia. Alexander's decisive act, whether through force or finesse, marked not just the end of a knot, but the dawn of a new era. With Asia at his feet, he fulfilled the prophecy woven into the fabric of the knot's tale.

The Gordian Knot endures not merely as a relic of antiquity, but as a parable for the ages. It speaks to the indomitable spirit of human endeavor, the audacity to confront the tangled skeins of fate with sword or subtle touch. In its unraveling lies not just the conquest of a kingdom, but the triumph of will over the seemingly insurmountable. As Alexander stood amidst the whispers of prophecy, he embodied the timeless truth that sometimes, to conquer destiny, one must dare to cut the Gordian Knot.

100 Phoenician Names and Their Meaning

In the vast repository of Phoenician heritage, names serve as echoes of bygone eras, encapsulating tales of gods, kings, and everyday individuals. Let's embark on an odyssey through 100 such names, each a testament to the rich tapestry of Phoenician civilization.

1. Adoniram - Meaning "My Lord is exalted," Adoniram was a trusted official in the court of King Solomon, as recorded in Biblical accounts.

2. Asherah - Revered as the "She who walks in the sea," Asherah was a significant Phoenician goddess of fertility, symbolized often as a tree or a pole.

3. Baal - Signifying "Lord" or "Master," Baal held a paramount position in the Phoenician pantheon, associated with storms and fertility rites.

4. Dido - Potentially derived from Phoenician roots denoting a "wanderer," Dido is enshrined in legend as the founder of Carthage, her tale intertwined with Virgil's "Aeneid."

5. Elissa - Translating to "Queen" or "Goddess," Elissa, an alternative name for Dido, carries the weight of Carthaginian foundational mythos.

6. Hanno - With possible connotations of "Gracious" or "Merciful," Hanno emerges in Carthaginian history as a name borne by several notable figures.

7. Ithobaal - Meaning "With whom Baal contends," Ithobaal, a king of Tyre, left an indelible mark through conflicts chronicled in historical texts.

8. Jezebel - Echoing the inquiry, "Where is the prince?" Jezebel strides through history as a Phoenician queen, infamous for promoting the worship of Baal.

9. Kothar - Revered as "Skillful" or "Clever," Kothar embodied the essence of craftsmanship and artistry in Phoenician mythology.

10. Melqart - The name signifying "King of the City" heralded the prominence of Melqart, a deity intertwined with Tyrian identity and often equated with Heracles.

11. Tanit - Potentially denoting a "Serpent Lady," Tanit, the Phoenician goddess of fertility and war, cast her influence over the land and sea.

12. Abibaal - Reflecting "My father is Baal," Abibaal adorned the titles of several Phoenician kings, underscoring their divine lineage.

13. Astarte - Bestowed with the mantle of "Lady of the Sky," Astarte reigned as a preeminent goddess of love and war in the Phoenician pantheon.

14. Belshazzar - Inclining toward "May Bel protect the king," Belshazzar, though of Babylonian descent, bore the imprint of Phoenician heritage.

15. Eshmun - Potentially embodying "The Eighth," Eshmun, the Phoenician god of healing, commanded reverence with his serpent-laden imagery.

16. Hamilcar - Linked etymologically to "Brother of Melqart," Hamilcar emerged as a recurrent name among Carthaginian leaders and generals.

17. Ittobaal - With shades of "With whom Baal is present," Ittobaal graced the annals of Sidonian kingship, shaping the destiny of his people.

18. Mago - Potentially derived from "great" or "powerful," Mago epitomized the strength and leadership inherent in Carthaginian nobility.

19. Sidon - Carrying the essence of "Fishery" or "Fisher's Town," Sidon emerged as a maritime powerhouse among ancient Phoenician city-states.

20. Tharbis - Shrouded in mystery, Tharbis, a legendary Ethiopian princess, traversed realms of myth and history, entwined with the saga of Moses.

21. Amatzia - Reverberating with "Yahweh is mighty," Amatzia echoed the fervent devotion to the deity amidst Phoenician and Hebrew communities.

22. Aziza - Embodying "Strong" or "Mighty," Aziza encapsulated the resilience and fortitude valued in Phoenician society.

23. Bodashtart - Symbolizing "Baal has given," Bodashtart adorned the titles of kings and nobles, evoking divine benevolence and favor.

24. Eshbaal - Enshrining "Man of Baal" or "Fire of Baal," Eshbaal's name echoed through royal lineage and historical records.

25. Hiram - With potential meanings such as "Brother of the Exalted One," Hiram's legacy intertwined with alliances and trade routes, fostering prosperity between Tyre and Israel.

26. Jael - Evoking images of the "Mountain Goat" or "Wild Goat," Jael etched her name in Biblical lore through her pivotal role in the defeat of Sisera.

27. Kabzeel - Potentially signifying "God gathers" or "Gathering of God," Kabzeel found mention both as a place in ancient Judah and a personal name.

28. Molech - Laden with possible connotations of "King" or "Ruler," Molech evoked both reverence and dread as a deity associated with sacrificial rites.

29. Tanith - Resonating with the enigmatic "Serpent Lady," Tanith held sway over realms of fertility, war, and lunar cycles in Phoenician and Carthaginian mythology.

30. Zebulon - Carrying echoes of "Dwelling" or "Habitation," Zebulon traversed realms of tribal affiliation among ancient Israelites and as a personal name among Phoenicians.

31. Adnah - With potential meanings like "The Lord's Ornament" or "Adorned by the Lord," Adnah was a name borne by several figures in the Bible, including military officers and officials.

32. Baalat - Translating to "Lady" or "Mistress," Baalat was a title used for various goddesses in the Phoenician and Canaanite pantheon.

33. Cenebeth - The meaning of Cenebeth remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

34. Ethbaal - Signifying "With Baal," Ethbaal was the name of several kings of Sidon and Tyre, known for their devotion to the god Baal.

35. Hacmoni - With potential meanings like "The Wise" or "The Skilled," Hacmoni appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

36. Joppa - Meaning "Beautiful," Joppa was an ancient port city in Phoenicia, known today as Jaffa, located in modern-day Israel.

37. Karmil - Potentially signifying "Vineyard of El," Karmil appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

38. Nebo - Possibly meaning "Proclaimer" or "Speaker," Nebo was a god of wisdom and writing in the Phoenician and Babylonian pantheon.

39. Tadmor - With potential meanings like "Palm Tree" or "Date Palm," Tadmor was an ancient city in the Syrian desert, known for its ruins.

40. Zalmunna - Meaning "Shadow of the Cloud" or "Protected by the Cloud," Zalmunna was a king of Midian defeated by the Israelites according to the Bible.

41. Ahiram - Potentially meaning "Brother of the Lofty One," Ahiram was the name of a king of Byblos and also appears in Phoenician inscriptions.

42. Barca - Possibly derived from "Thunderbolt" or "Lightning," Barca was the name of a prominent Carthaginian family, including the famous general Hannibal Barca.

43. Elimelech - Signifying "My God is King," Elimelech appears in both Phoenician and Hebrew contexts, often indicating devotion to the god Yahweh.

44. Hesbon - The meaning of Hesbon remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

45. Kadesh - Kadesh was an ancient city in Syria, known for its significance in various historical and religious contexts.

46. Obadiah - Meaning "Servant of Yahweh," Obadiah was the name of several individuals in the Bible, including a prophet.

47. Tyre - Tyre was one of the most prominent Phoenician city-states, renowned for its maritime trade and purple dye production.

48. Zaphon - The meaning of Zaphon remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

49. Ahmose - Meaning "Born of the Moon," Ahmose was a name borne by several ancient Egyptian pharaohs, though it also appears in Phoenician contexts.

50. Baruch - Signifying "Blessed" or "Blessing," Baruch was the name of a scribe in the Bible, known for his association with the prophet Jeremiah.

51. Eliab - Meaning "God is Father," Eliab appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

52. Heshbon - The meaning of Heshbon remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

53. Kamar - Possibly meaning "Vine" or "Vineyard," Kamar appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

54. Oreb - Meaning "Raven," Oreb was a figure in the Bible, known for his role in the defeat of the Midianites by Gideon.

55. Ugarit - Ugarit was an ancient city-state located in modern-day Syria, known for its significant archaeological discoveries.

56. Zarephath - Meaning "Smelting Furnace" or "Refinery," Zarephath was an ancient Phoenician city mentioned in the Bible.

57. Ahzai - The meaning of Ahzai remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

58. Bazlith - The meaning of Bazlith remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

59. Elimelek - Possibly meaning "My God is King," Elimelek appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

60. Hezekiah - Meaning "Yahweh Strengthens," Hezekiah was a king of Judah, known for his religious reforms and defiance against Assyrian domination.

61. Kamzu - The meaning of Kamzu remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

62. Orpheus - Orpheus was a legendary figure in Greek mythology, known for his musical prowess and journey to the underworld.

63. Zimran - Meaning "Song" or "Music," Zimran appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

64. Ahzai - The meaning of Ahzai remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

65. Bealiah - Signifying "Yahweh is Lord," Bealiah appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

66. Eliphaz - Meaning "God is Fine Gold," Eliphaz appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

67. Hiddekel - Hiddekel was one of the rivers mentioned in the Bible, often identified with the Tigris River.

68. Keturah - Meaning "Incense" or "Fragrance," Keturah appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

69. Othniel - Signifying "Lion of God," Othniel was a judge of Israel, known for his valor and leadership.

70. Zorah - Zorah was an ancient city in the territory of the tribe of Dan, known for its association with the biblical figure Samson.

71. Aibani - The meaning of Aibani remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

72. Beeri - Meaning "My Well," Beeri appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

73. Elisha - Signifying "God is Salvation," Elisha was a prophet in the Bible, known for his miracles and association with the prophet Elijah.

74. Hinai - The meaning of Hinai remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

75. Kimah - Possibly meaning "Constellation" or "Star," Kimah appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

76. Padan - Padan was a region mentioned in the Bible, often identified with the area where Jacob stayed with Laban.

77. Zorath - The meaning of Zorath remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

78. Ainai - Possibly meaning "My Fountain" or "My Eye," Ainai appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

79. Bekar - Possibly meaning "Firstborn" or "First Fruits," Bekar appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

80. Elkanah - Signifying "God has Possessed" or "God has Created," Elkanah appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

81. Hiram - Hiram was the name of several kings of Tyre, known for their alliances and trade relations with Israel.

82. Laban - Meaning "White," Laban was a figure in the Bible, known for his relationship with his nephew Jacob.

83. Penuel - Signifying "Face of God," Penuel appears as a place name in the Bible, associated with Jacob's wrestling with an angel.

84. Zohar - Possibly meaning "Brilliance" or "Radiance," Zohar appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

85. Aliah - The meaning of Aliah remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

86. Belial - Meaning "Worthless" or "Wicked," Belial was a figure in Jewish and Christian texts, often representing evil.

87. Elon - Signifying "Oak Tree" or "Terebinth," Elon appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

88. Hoshea - Meaning "Salvation" or "He Saves," Hoshea was the name of several figures in the Bible, including a king of Israel.

89. Lahmi - The meaning of Lahmi remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

90. Phuvah - Possibly meaning "Mouth" or "Speech," Phuvah appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

91. Zur - Signifying "Rock" or "Stone," Zur appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

92. Allon - Meaning "Oak" or "Oak Tree," Allon appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

93. Ben-Ammi - Translating to "Son of My People," Ben-Ammi was the name of a biblical figure, believed to be the ancestor of the Ammonite people.

94. Emek - Possibly meaning "Valley" or "Lowland," Emek appears as a personal name in Phoenician inscriptions.

95. Ibzan - Signifying "Distinguished" or "Illustrious," Ibzan was a judge of Israel, known for his thirty sons and thirty daughters.

96. Lamech - Meaning "Powerful" or "Mighty," Lamech appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

97. Raphah - Possibly meaning "Healed" or "Restored," Raphah appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

98. Zuph - The meaning of Zuph remains uncertain, though it appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

99. Alvan - Possibly meaning "Brightness" or "Whiteness," Alvan appears as a personal name in both Biblical and Phoenician contexts.

100. Balaam - Signifying "Not of the People" or "Foreigner," Balaam was a figure in the Bible, known for his prophetic abilities and association with the Moabite king Balak.

     These names encompass a diverse array of meanings and historical contexts, offering glimpses into the vibrant tapestry of Phoenician civilization.

Archaeologists Digging At Ancient Egyptian Burial Made A Wild Discovery

In the heart of Luxor's West Bank, where the majestic city of Thebes once flourished, archaeologists have embarked on a captivating excavation journey. Amidst the ancient necropolis dating back to the 16th century B.C., their efforts yield a remarkable discovery: a wooden coffin, concealed beneath layers of time. With bated breath, they unveil its contents, unveiling an awe-inspiring revelation.

The Colosseum After the Fall of Rome

Following the decline of the Roman Empire, the Colosseum, once a symbol of grandeur and spectacle, fell into disrepair and neglect. Stripped of its former glory, the mighty amphitheater became a quarry for building materials, a fortress, a workshop, and even a makeshift residential area.

Over the centuries, it weathered earthquakes, fires, and looting, yet its iconic silhouette endured as a testament to the resilience of ancient engineering. Despite its turbulent post-Roman history, the Colosseum ultimately emerged as a cherished symbol of Rome's enduring legacy, captivating visitors with its rich history and architectural splendor.

12 Most Incredible Recent Artifact Finds That Change History

There are two kinds of facts and artifacts that historians and archaeologists can discover. There are those that support the official narrative of history, and those that challenge it. While the second category is more troubling for historians, we must accept those discoveries for what they are and celebrate them when they appear. That's what this video is - a celebration of discoveries that might change history!

11,000 Years OLDER than Göbekli Tepe: 23,000-Year-Old Settlement & Early Cultivation?!

Explore the hidden marvel of Ohalo II, an archaeological gem nestled on the southwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee in Northern Israel. Despite its profound significance, this ancient site remains obscure to many.

Dating back an astonishing 23,000 years to the Last Glacial Maximum, Ohalo II stands as a testament to the enduring resilience of early human societies. Unlike typical seasonal camps, this settlement was inhabited year-round, spanning numerous generations—an exceptional rarity for such antiquity.

Yet, it's not just its age that captivates scholars and enthusiasts alike. Ohalo II boasts two extraordinary claims to fame, earning it a place in the annals of human history.

Firstly, it boasts the world's oldest brush dwellings, offering a glimpse into the daily lives of our distant ancestors. Moreover, and perhaps most remarkably, it presents evidence of the earliest known small-scale plant cultivation—a groundbreaking discovery predating the advent of agriculture in the famed Fertile Crescent by a staggering 11,000 years.

Delve into the profound implications of Ohalo II's revelations by watching our video, unveiling a settlement that predates even Göbeklitepe, and sheds light on the dawn of ice age farming—the very roots of civilization.

Archaeologists find buildings that might have been used as 'Paths for the Dead.'

In a remarkable archaeological revelation, recent excavations in Baltinglass, County Wicklow, Ireland, led by Dr. James O'Driscoll of the University of Aberdeen, have brought to light what are believed to be ancient pathways for the deceased.

Employing cutting-edge Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) technology, which utilizes lasers to meticulously map terrain and uncover concealed structures, researchers have uncovered five monumental structures dating back to the middle Neolithic era, spanning from 8000 BCE to 2000 BCE.

The unearthed constructions, referred to as cursus monuments, comprise earthworks consisting of elongated trenches or ditches that traverse the landscape. Ranging in size from 122 to over 183 meters in length, with the most extensive stretching to 400 meters, these monuments are thought to have served as ceremonial avenues for mourning rituals or the journey of the departed into the afterlife.

Lidar imaging of one of the five curus monuments (seen in red) found at the prehistoric site in Ireland. (Image credit: James O'Driscoll; Antiquity Publications Ltd)

Dr. O'Driscoll postulates that the alignment of these sites with the morning sun during the summer solstice, coupled with their proximity to other ancient burial grounds, lends credence to the theory of their ceremonial significance.

The pivotal role of LiDAR technology cannot be overstated in this groundbreaking discovery. By deploying airborne laser pulses to survey the terrain, researchers were able to discern structures characteristic of cursus monuments. Notably, an Irish aerial survey company conducted a LiDAR scan of the area in 2022, revealing not only the cursus monuments but also previously unknown features such as a Bronze Age hillfort and medieval ringforts.

The significance of these findings extends beyond mere archaeological curiosity. The cluster of cursus monuments discovered in Baltinglass is believed to be the most extensive in both Ireland and Britain, challenging long-held assumptions about the region's historical narrative. Contrary to prior beliefs suggesting a 2000-year desertion of the area between the Early Neolithic and Late Bronze Age, these discoveries hint at a more continuous habitation and a deeper entanglement of daily life, agriculture, and spiritual beliefs in ancient societies.

In essence, these revelations offer profound insights into the complex cultural and spiritual practices of Neolithic and Bronze Age communities, reshaping our understanding of Ireland's ancient past and its enduring legacy in the landscape of County Wicklow.

New study links ancient Egyptian tombs to radioactive waste, revealing insights into the "Pharaoh's curse."

A new study suggests that ancient Egyptians may have experimented with nuclear technology, linking the "Pharaoh's curse" to buried radioactive nuclear waste found in tombs.

The burial mask of Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamun

(Image:Getty Images)

Recent research delves into the enigmatic "Pharaoh's Curse" that seemed to afflict those who dared to disturb the sanctity of ancient Egyptian tombs. This study, featured in the Journal of Archaeological Science, overturns conventional wisdom by proposing a provocative theory: the curse may have been linked to the inadvertent exposure to radioactive nuclear waste stored within these ancient burial sites.

The investigation draws a striking parallel between ancient Egyptian texts and nuclear technology, suggesting a level of scientific sophistication previously unrecognized. Texts dating back to 2300-2100 BC, such as the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts, contain references to transformative processes reminiscent of uranium-based materials. For instance, descriptions of Osiris as being "transformed into light" hint at an understanding of nuclear energy release and matter-energy conversion.

Moreover, symbolic references to substances like "saffron cakes" evoke uranium-related materials, implying an early awareness or utilization of radioactive elements. Intriguingly, archaeological evidence indicates rituals involving the burial of "hated excrements" in underground vaults, possibly reflecting an early grasp of radioactive waste disposal methods.

The study also examines the layout of Egyptian tombs, proposing that the unnatural radiation detected within these structures aligns with patterns consistent with nuclear waste storage. Symbolic motifs found on stone pots, representing different types of radiation, suggest an awareness of the dangers associated with radiation exposure.

Furthermore, textual references to the processing of "magic food" using advanced techniques like diffusion and centrifugation hint at a sophisticated understanding of material refinement processes akin to nuclear technology. The study contends that these findings challenge traditional explanations of the "Pharaoh's curse," suggesting instead a connection to the presence of radioactive materials within the tombs.

Supporting this hypothesis are historical accounts of researchers involved in tomb excavations experiencing unusually high rates of cancer-related deaths and other symptoms consistent with radiation sickness. Notable figures, such as Lord Carnarvon and Arthur Weigall, whose lives were intertwined with the exploration of Tutankhamun's tomb, succumbed to untimely deaths following exposure to these tombs.

While Howard Carter, the lead archaeologist behind the discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb, did not meet the same fate, the study underscores the pervasive risk posed by the inadvertent exposure to radioactive elements within these ancient burial sites. Thus, the "Pharaoh's curse" takes on a new dimension, intertwined with the mysteries of nuclear technology and ancient Egyptian civilization.

In the Footsteps of History: The Olympic Flame's 11-Day Cultural Sojourn Through Greece for Paris 2024

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Embarking on an 11-day odyssey rich in history and cultural significance, the Olympic Flame for the Paris 2024 Games traversed the storied landscapes of Greece, connecting the modern spectacle with its ancient origins. This ceremonial pilgrimage not only symbolizes the enduring spirit of the games but also casts light on Greece's unparalleled contributions to history, archaeology, and the very concept of the Olympics.

1. Ancient Olympia: The journey commenced at the heart of the ancient Olympic Games, where athletes once vied for glory and honor under the gaze of the gods. Today, the Flame’s ignition at this sacred site serves as a poignant tribute to the enduring legacy of the games, illuminating the ruins with the promise of peace and camaraderie that the modern games aspire to embody.

2. Statue of Asclepius, Trikala: The flame then cast its glow upon the effigy of Asclepius, enshrining the ancient commitment to healing and the arts. Amidst a city known for its medieval architecture and Byzantine heritage and also for being, during prehistoric ages, an important cultural center since it was the birthplace of Asclepius, this stop on the Flame's journey bridges the worlds of ancient myth and the enduring human quest for knowledge and well-being.

3. Mycenae: The hallowed grounds of Mycenae, a citadel that whispers tales of kings and epic sagas, provided a dramatic backdrop for the Flame. Here, amidst the Cyclopean walls and Lion Gate, the Flame's passage echoes the heroic spirit that has captured imaginations for millennia.

4. Sounio, Temple of Poseidon: Perched at the edge of the Aegean, the Temple of Poseidon at Sounio stands as a sentinel to seafarers. The Olympic Flame, alight against the columns, paid homage to the god of the seas, a reminder of the ancient Greeks' reverence for the elemental powers that shaped their world.

5. Ancient Oracle of Delphi: The Flame's ascent to Delphi carried it through the misty realms of prophecy and divine will. Here, at the navel of the ancient world, it was as if Pythia herself might have presaged the uniting force of the Flame, a beacon of hope and a call to the world’s athletes to gather once more.

6. Naxos Island, Remains of the Temple of Apollo: On the Isle of Naxos, amid the scattered remnants of Apollo’s temple (known as Portara), the Flame stood as a testament to the light of knowledge and music, central themes in the legacy of the god it honored. The Flame's journey across the island highlighted the blend of natural beauty and human artistry that typifies the Greek landscape.

7. Parthenon, Athens: No journey would be complete without the Flame basking in the glory of the Parthenon. Here, democracy took its first steps, and art and philosophy found their highest expression. The flame's reflection on the Parthenon's marbles serves as a metaphor for the light of ancient Greece, continually inspiring humanity's pursuit of excellence.

8. Macedonian Royal Tombs of Aigai-Vergina: Finally, the Flame visited the solemn grandeur of the Macedonian Royal Tombs at Aigai-Vergina, where the legacies of kings and conquerors lay enshrined. In the quietude of these ancient halls, the flame's passage seemed to whisper of the vast narratives of history that continue to shape our modern world.

9. The Aqueduct of Kavala, Kamares: As the Flame traced the path of water through the Kamares, the grandeur of the Aqueduct of Kavala stood as a testament to the ingenuity and architectural prowess of the ancients. The stark arches and the steadfastness of this structure remind us that the flow of progress, like water, is ceaseless. Here, the Flame not only celebrated human achievement but also underscored the vital connection between past civilizations and their surrounding environments, offering a moment of reflection on the endurance of human creation.

10. Ancient City of Corinth: Journeying next to the crossroads of Peloponnesian commerce and culture, the Flame visited the storied city of Corinth. With its temples, fountains, and the imposing Acrocorinth fortress, the city's ruins tell a tale of a once-thriving hub that connected ancient societies. The flame, dancing among these relics, symbolized the eternal bridge between the ancient cosmopolitan spirit and the global community the Olympic Games aim to foster.

11. First Ancient Theatre of Larissa, Greece: Finally, the Flame illuminated the First Ancient Theatre of Larissa, a cultural landmark nestled at the heart of Thessaly. This theatre, carved into the hillside, once echoed with the voices of poets and the applause of spectators. As the flame's glow cast shadows on the stone tiers, it evoked the timeless importance of art and community. Here, the spirit of the games, much like the dramas of old, reflects the spectrum of human experience, from the tragic to the triumphant, all within the amphitheater of history.

From the sanctuaries of the gods to the heights of human achievement, the Olympic Flame’s journey through Greece for "Paris 2024" intertwines the threads of the past with the aspirations of the present, heralding the upcoming celebration of unity, competition, and peace that the Olympic Games represent.

From Thule to the Tropics: The Sea-Faring Reach of Ancient Greek Explorers

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Legacy of Greek Maritime Pioneers: The Widespread Maritime Exploration of the Greeks

In the annals of ancient history, few narratives are as enthralling as those of the Greek mariners, whose sails billowed on the winds of discovery and curiosity. Their intrepid voyages not only charted the physical expanses of the seas but also the unbounded potential of human endeavor. This article delves into the odysseys of six pioneering Greek explorers, whose contributions are immortalized through the fragments of history that have endured the passage of time.

Pytheas of Massalia: The Northern Voyager

In the 4th century BC, Pytheas embarked on a journey from the Greek colony of Massalia (modern-day Marseille) that would etch his name into the lore of explorers. His daring voyage to the British Isles and possibly beyond to Thule—a land shrouded in the mists of legend, thought to lie in the icy embrace of the far North—stands as a testament to his audacious spirit. The accounts of Pytheas's travels reach us through the writings of Strabo, Pliny, and Diodorus, piecing together a tale of a world far from the Mediterranean warmth, where the sun scarcely dipped below the horizon.

Strabo adds the following in Book 5: “Now Pytheas of Massilia tells us that Thule, the most northerly of the Britannic Islands, is farthest north, and that there the circle of the summer tropic is the same as the Arctic Circle”

Euthymenes of Massalia: The African Enigma

A contemporary to Pytheas, Euthymenes set his sights southward, skirting the edges of the African continent beyond the Pillars of Hercules. Though details are sparse, Strabo's geographical treatises convey images of a coast that extended into unknown territories, a narrative that challenged the Greek understanding of the world's peripheries. Euthymenes's legacy is that of a pioneer who peeled back the veil on Africa's western seaboard, long before the exploits of later Hellenistic and Roman explorers.

Eudoxus of Cyzicus: A Dream Unfulfilled

In a bid that would presage the efforts of much later adventurers, Eudoxus of Cyzicus dared to dream of a sea route around Africa. Strabo and Pliny relay his multiple attempts, although success ultimately eluded him.

After completing a pair of triumphant expeditions to India via the Red Sea under the patronage of the Egyptian ruler Ptolemy Euergetes II, the intrepid navigator set sail for Gades, known today as Cádiz in Spain. It was there that he meticulously prepared three vessels for his ambitious goal of circumnavigating the continent. Unfortunately, his inaugural voyage met with misfortune as his ship ran aground off the southern coast of Morocco. Undeterred, he embarked once more, navigating the western fringe of Africa, but this time, the sea claimed the entirety of his brave crew.

The dream of circumventing Africa's southern tip lay dormant, unchallenged again, until the dawn of the late 15th century. His ventures in the 2nd century BC served as crucial precursors to the understanding of Africa's maritime contours, a puzzle that would not be completely solved until the Age of Discovery.

Onesicritus of Astypalaia: The Fleet of the Great Alexander

Onesicritus, chronicled by Arrian and Strabo, wielded his maritime acumen in service of Alexander the Great. His voyages, particularly through the Indian Ocean, expanded the ambit of Hellenic knowledge and exemplified the fusion of exploration and empire. As Alexander's fleet commander, Onesicritus not only traversed unknown waters but also brought back accounts that would feed the Greek appetite for the wonders of the East.

The documented extent of ancient Greek exploration by sea
Source of the map: Twitter/Philoveritas

Megasthenes: The Chronicler of India

As an envoy to the Mauryan court of Chandragupta, Megasthenes's "Indica" offered the Greeks a vivid, albeit second-hand, portrait of the Indian subcontinent. His descriptions of India, though not without exaggeration, provided a mosaic of its geography, flora, fauna, and social structures. The fragments of his work, preserved in the citations of later historians, form a crucial bridge between Greek and Indian civilizations.

Nearchus: The Return from the Indus

Perhaps one of the most celebrated naval voyages of antiquity was that of Nearchus, who navigated from the mouth of the Indus River back to the Persian Gulf. Under the aegis of Alexander, Nearchus’s expedition, meticulously recounted by Arrian in "Indica," was as much a military retreat as a voyage of discovery. While his own writings are lost to time, the accounts passed down underscore the challenges and triumphs of his momentous journey.

These maritime odysseys are more than mere footnotes in history; they are enduring symbols of the Hellenic quest for knowledge and the unrelenting human drive to uncover the Earth's mysteries. With the help of starlight and ambition, the ancient Greek explorers set sail for the unknown, leaving behind a legacy that has continued to whisper to us over the centuries, encouraging us to pursue our own discoveries.

Archaeologists uncover graves of ancient people believed to be zombies and intentionally buried to ensure they never rise again.

Archaeologists have recently made a striking discovery in Germany, unearthing an ancient burial site near the village of Oppin in the state of Saxony-Anhalt. This find sheds light on intriguing burial practices of prehistoric peoples, revealing a profound fear of the dead returning to life.

The burial site in question is no ordinary grave; it represents what archaeologists refer to as a "revenant" grave, a term borrowed from folklore describing individuals who return from the dead, either as spirits or animated corpses, often to haunt or menace the living. These graves, colloquially dubbed "zombie" graves, have been found across Europe, dating back thousands of years.

What sets these graves apart are the precautions taken by ancient communities to prevent the deceased from rising again. In the case of the German burial, a man aged between 40 to 60 years old was found in a crouched position, with a sizable stone—measuring approximately 3.2 feet in length and 1.6 feet wide—placed over his legs. Archaeologists speculate that this stone was intentionally positioned to weigh down the body, possibly to thwart any attempt at resurrection.

This fear of the dead transcends epochs and cultures. Even in the Stone Age, people sought to ward off the return of the deceased through rituals and magical practices. Susanne Friederich, an archaeologist involved in the excavation, explains that ancient beliefs held that the dead might attempt to claw their way out of their graves, hence some were buried face down, as if to thwart their ascent to the surface.

The burial site dates back around 4,200 years, the archaeologist said. Photo: © LDA Saxony-Anhalt, Anja Lochner-Rechta

While the exact dating of the grave is yet to be determined, it appears to be associated with the Bell Beaker culture, which emerged over 4,500 years ago in Europe. This find is particularly significant as it could represent the first revenant grave from the Bell Beaker period discovered in central Germany. Such a discovery is rare, given the limited evidence of such burial customs within this culture.

Beyond the revenant grave, the excavation unearthed further artifacts, including another grave from the Bell Beaker culture and remnants of a hearth, providing valuable insights into the daily lives and beliefs of ancient peoples. This discovery underscores the enduring fascination with death and the afterlife, offering a glimpse into the fears and rituals of our distant ancestors.

Spanish Archaeologists Unravel Secrets of Iconic 'Excalibur' Sword

In a captivating discovery reminiscent of Arthurian legend, archaeologists unearthed a remarkable artifact in Valencia, Spain—an iron sword named "Excalibur." The sword, found standing upright in the earth in 1994 at an archaeological site near Valencia's ancient Roman Forum, has now yielded its secrets as researchers unveil its storied past.

Named after the fabled sword of King Arthur, Excalibur's initial discovery sparked intrigue and speculation about its origins and significance. Situated in a region steeped in history, the site of Valencia's old town has seen the rise and fall of numerous civilizations over the centuries.

After decades of uncertainty surrounding its age, the Valencia City Council's Archeology Service (SIAM) has successfully dated Excalibur to the 10th century, placing it squarely within the Islamic era of Spain, known as Al-Andalus. This period, stretching from A.D. 711 to 1492, marked a significant chapter in the Iberian Peninsula's history, characterized by the coexistence of Islamic and Christian cultures.

Excalibur's dating marks a milestone as the first Islamic-era sword discovered in Valencia, shedding light on a period of history previously obscured. Swords from this era are rare finds, particularly in Valencia, where challenging soil conditions pose obstacles to preservation efforts.

Measuring approximately 18 inches in length, Excalibur boasts a distinctive design, with a hilt adorned with bronze plates and a moderately sized blade that gently curves towards the tip. This curvature, once a source of confusion regarding its age, distinguishes it from Visigoth swords of similar appearance.

The Visigoths, a prominent Germanic tribe, exerted influence across Europe during the twilight of the Western Roman Empire and the Early Middle Ages. In the Iberian Peninsula, they established a powerful kingdom until the Islamic conquest reshaped the region.

Despite its resemblance to Visigoth swords, Excalibur's unique characteristics, coupled with analysis of sediment layers, allowed researchers to confirm its Islamic-era origins. Its size and lack of handguard suggest it may have been wielded by a mounted warrior, adding another layer to its historical significance.

"This sword's distinct design imbues it with tremendous archaeological and cultural value," remarked José Luis Moreno, Valencia's councilor for cultural action, heritage, and cultural resources. With Excalibur restored to its former glory, its legacy as a tangible link to Valencia's rich past continues to captivate imaginations and illuminate history's mysteries.

Scientist Unveils True Cause of 'Pharaoh's Curse' Linked to King Tut's Tomb

The enigmatic 'Pharaoh's curse,' long believed to have claimed over 20 lives following the opening of King Tutankhamun's tomb in 1922, has finally been deciphered by a determined scientist. Ross Fellowes contends that behind the veil of superstition lies a concrete biological explanation.

Contrary to the ancient Egyptian texts warning of a mysterious affliction, Fellowes posits that the fatalities were a result of radiation poisoning, stemming from deliberate placement of uranium-laden natural elements and toxic substances within the sealed confines of the tomb.

The revelation sheds light on the demise of individuals like Howard Carter, the pioneering archaeologist who succumbed to cancer, possibly induced by radiation exposure. Lord Carnarvon, another figure associated with the tomb's opening, met his end due to blood poisoning from a mosquito bite.

The scientific breakthrough not only demystifies the 'curse' but underscores a deliberate, albeit ancient, form of foul play. It dismantles the notion of supernatural retribution perpetuated by some Egyptologists, offering a sobering look at the perils lurking within the confines of ancient burial sites.

King Tutankhamun, the iconic figure at the heart of the mystery, continues to intrigue with his untimely demise at around 18 years old. Despite his illustrious lineage, Tutankhamun's life was marred by health issues, potentially stemming from familial intermarriages common among Egyptian royalty.

Through meticulous analysis, scientists reconstruct Tutankhamun's physical attributes, revealing a frail ruler beset by ailments like buck teeth, a club foot, and girlish hips. Far from the image of a vigorous chariot racer, Tutankhamun relied on walking sticks to navigate his realm.

The unveiling of the true cause behind the 'Pharaoh's curse' not only reshapes our understanding of ancient beliefs but also offers a poignant glimpse into the life and death of one of history's most iconic figures.

From the Earth, Not the Sky: Debunking Extraterrestrial Theories of the Nazca Lines

Myth Versus Reality: How the Nazca Lines Were Truly Meant to Be Seen

The arid plains of Peru’s Nazca Desert hold one of the world’s most enigmatic archaeological enigmas: the Nazca Lines. These colossal geoglyphs, created by the Nazca culture between 500 BCE and 500 CE, consist of hundreds of figures ranging from geometric patterns to stylized images of animals, plants, and mythical shapes. Stretching across nearly 450 square kilometers, these lines have puzzled historians, archaeologists, and enthusiasts for decades.

Origins and Discovery

The Nazca Lines were not widely known until the 20th century, when airplanes flying overhead revealed the vast and intricate designs etched into the landscape. This discovery propelled a myriad of theories about their purpose and creation, transforming them into a focal point for both scientific research and popular speculation.

Visibility and Purpose

One of the most striking aspects of the Nazca Lines is that they can be seen from the surrounding hilltops and even more distinctly from the Andes mountains nearby. This visibility refutes the more fantastical theories that claim only gods or extraterrestrial beings should be able to see the lines from above. Instead, it suggests that the Nazca people designed these geoglyphs with both an understanding and an appreciation of their natural landscape.

Archaeologists have proposed that the lines served a multifaceted set of purposes, blending the practical with the spiritual. Some suggest that the lines functioned as astronomical markers, aligning with key celestial events, which were critical in an agricultural society dependent on the seasonal cycles. Others believe the lines were part of ritualistic processes, perhaps used as sacred paths during religious ceremonies dedicated to deities who controlled fertility and water, crucial elements in the harsh desert environment.

Construction Techniques

The method of their creation is equally impressive. The geoglyphs were formed by removing the reddish pebbles that cover the terrain to reveal the lighter earth beneath. This technique not only required laborious effort but also an intricate knowledge of geometric design and spatial organization. The precision of the lines, some stretching up to several kilometers in length, showcases Nazca's sophisticated understanding of mathematics and surveying.

Debunking the Mythical

The visibility of the geoglyphs from nearby highlands also debunks more speculative theories, such as those suggesting the Nazca used hot air balloons to survey their constructions. Mainstream archaeology considers these theories a distraction from the true ingenuity of the Nazca culture. The lines were likely not meant for the gods in the sky but for rituals observed by participants walking along the paths, engaging directly with the figures etched into the earth.

Legacy and Preservation

Today, the Nazca Lines are a UNESCO World Heritage Site, protected and studied as precious relics of human creativity and ingenuity. The ongoing challenge is to preserve these vulnerable designs from threats such as climate change, erosion, and human activities. The lines have survived centuries, and with careful preservation, they can continue to fascinate and inspire generations to come.

The Nazca Lines remind us of the human capacity to reshape our environment into profound cultural expressions. These geoglyphs are not messages to be read from the heavens but monumental artworks that speak of the human spirit, ingenuity, and the eternal desire to commune with the cosmos.

Why Empires and Civilizations Collapse: A Look at the Factors Leading to Societal Collapse

Throughout history, mighty empires have risen and fallen, leaving behind magnificent ruins and cautionary tales. Understanding the reasons behind these collapses can help us identify potential weaknesses in our own societies and strive for a more stable future. This article explores some of the key factors that have contributed to the downfall of past civilizations.

The Sack of Rome in 410 by the Barbarians by Joseph-Noël Sylvestre, 1890

External Threats:

• War and Invasion: Empires engaged in constant warfare can become stretched thin, leaving themselves vulnerable to attack by stronger forces. The fall of the Western Roman Empire is a prime example, where barbarian invasions chipped away at the empire's borders until it could no longer defend itself .

• Mass Migration: Large influxes of refugees fleeing war, famine, or persecution can strain a society's resources and lead to social unrest. The collapse of the Han Dynasty in China is partly attributed to mass migrations from nomadic groups on the northern borders.

Environmental Challenges:

• Climate Change: Gradual shifts in climate patterns can disrupt agricultural production and lead to food shortages. The demise of the Mayan civilization is believed to be linked to a prolonged drought.

• Resource Depletion: Societies heavily reliant on specific resources, like timber or fertile land, can face collapse if those resources become depleted. Easter Island's deforestation is a stark example of how environmental mismanagement can lead to societal decline.

Economic Troubles:

• Inequality and Overspending: When wealth concentrates in the hands of a few, the majority of the population can suffer. This economic disparity can breed resentment and social unrest. The decline of the Roman Republic is partly attributed to the widening gap between rich and poor.

• Unsustainable Practices: Empires that prioritize short-term gain over long-term sustainability can sow the seeds of their own destruction. Deforestation, soil depletion, and poor water management can all contribute to economic decline.

Internal Decay:

• Corruption and Ineffective Leadership: Leaders who prioritize self-interest over the well-being of their citizens can erode public trust and weaken the fabric of society. The later Roman emperors are often cited as examples of corrupt leadership that contributed to the empire's downfall.

• Social Cohesion: A strong sense of shared identity and purpose is essential for a society to thrive. If social divisions deepen and trust breaks down, a society can become vulnerable to internal conflict.

Disease:

• Epidemics: The spread of infectious diseases can devastate a population, leading to labor shortages, famine, and social disorder. The Black Death, which swept through Europe in the 14th century, is a chilling example of how disease can contribute to societal collapse.

A Complex Interplay:

It's crucial to remember that these factors rarely act in isolation. More often than not, a combination of these events will push a society to the brink of collapse. For instance, an environmental disaster might weaken a society, making it more susceptible to invasion or internal rebellion.

Learning from the Past:

By studying the collapse of past civilizations, we can gain valuable insights into the potential weaknesses of our own societies. This knowledge can help us develop more sustainable practices, strengthen social cohesion, and prepare for potential threats.

Sources:

https://www.palladiummag.com/2024/03/08/why-civilizations-collapse/

https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-science/civilizations-collapse.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societal_collapse

Enigmatic Roman dodecahedron discovered in Lincolnshire to go on display in county for the first time

Discovering a piece of ancient history is always a thrilling adventure, and the unearthing of the Roman dodecahedron in Norton Disney, near Lincoln, adds a fascinating chapter to the annals of archaeological discovery. This remarkable find, crafted from copper alloy and believed to hail from the third or fourth century, has captured the attention of historians and enthusiasts alike. Found intact and astonishingly well-preserved during a summer excavation in 2023, this hollow, 12-sided object stands as one of the most significant archaeological discoveries in recent memory.

Measuring approximately 8cm in height and weighing 245g, the Norton Disney dodecahedron stands as one of the largest examples of its kind. Its discovery marks not only the first occurrence of such an artifact in the Midlands but also joins a select group of only 33 dodecahedrons found across Britain. Unlike many of its counterparts, which have been unearthed in fragmented or damaged states, the Norton Disney specimen remains complete, offering researchers a pristine glimpse into the past.

Despite its prominence, the true purpose of these enigmatic objects remains shrouded in mystery. Absent from Roman texts and depictions, the dodecahedron's significance is a subject of conjecture, with scholars speculating that it may have held ritualistic or religious importance. Its presence defies practical explanation, leaving ample room for imagination and speculation regarding its original function.

Now, after centuries of obscurity, the Norton Disney dodecahedron is set to make its debut in its home county. As part of the Lincoln Festival of History, beginning on May 4th and running until early September 2024, this extraordinary artifact will be on public display at the Lincoln Museum. Coinciding with the festival's inaugural celebration, visitors will have the opportunity to witness this ancient marvel firsthand, mere miles from where it was unearthed.

The Festival of History promises a journey through time, offering attendees a chance to engage with Lincoln's rich heritage. In addition to the dodecahedron exhibition, visitors can immerse themselves in the world of the ancient Romans, as the museum hosts a legion reenactment in its atrium. Moreover, the museum's archaeology gallery showcases a plethora of Roman treasures unearthed throughout the city and county, providing further insight into the region's past.

For those eager to delve deeper into Lincoln's history, guided tours of Posterngate offer a glimpse beneath the city streets, where remnants of a hidden Roman gateway await discovery. These tours, a highlight of the festival, offer a unique perspective on Lincoln's ancient roots and are sure to captivate history enthusiasts of all ages.

Andrea Martin, exhibitions and interpretations manager at Lincoln Museum, expresses delight at the prospect of showcasing the Norton Disney dodecahedron to the public for the first time in Lincolnshire. She emphasizes the significance of the artifact's debut, particularly amidst the backdrop of the Festival of History, which promises to be a delight for history enthusiasts and visitors alike.

Richard Parker, secretary of the Norton Disney History and Archaeology Group, reflects on the enduring mystery surrounding the dodecahedron and the global interest it has generated. Despite extensive research, the object's purpose remains elusive, sparking a flurry of speculation and inquiry. Parker hints at future excavations in the area, hopeful that further discoveries may shed light on the artifact's origins and significance.

The Norton Disney dodecahedron's journey to prominence extends beyond local acclaim, as it garnered international attention, including a feature on BBC's "Digging for Britain." Now, it invites visitors to embark on their own journey through time at Lincoln Museum, where admission is free, offering a glimpse into a bygone era rich with intrigue and mystery.

But the Festival of History offers more than just a glimpse into the past. From the Castle Zone at Lincoln Castle to the Victorian adventure awaiting at the Museum of Lincolnshire Life, the festival promises a diverse array of experiences sure to delight visitors of all interests. For a comprehensive guide to the festival's events, visitors are encouraged to explore the Visit Lincoln website and embark on a journey through the annals of history.

The Labrys: Exploring the Evolution of the Sacred Double Axe from Neolithic Anatolia to the Minoan Labyrinth

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Labrys as a Cultural Keystone from Çatal Höyük to Knossos

The odyssey of the labrys, a symbol par excellence of divine authority and ritual, commences long before its renowned association with the Minoan civilization. Originating within the prehistoric tapestry of Anatolia, specifically at the site of Çatalhöyük, the labrys' presence can be traced back to a society flourishing from 7500 to 5700 BCE. Already from that time, the double axe emerges not merely as a tool but as a ceremonial artifact, integral to the worship practices of early agrarian communities.

As the embodiment of power and religious life, the labrys traversed maritime routes from the Anatolian and Greek mainlands to Minoan Crete, where it became a central motif in the island's intricate palatial complexes and religious iconography, reflecting a narrative of cultural transmission and adaptation that spanned across centuries.

From Neolithic Anatolia to Minoan Crete: The Journey of the Labrys

The ancient Greeks referred to the double axe as "labrys," a term steeped in mystery and hailing from the depths of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods of Anatolia. This word had already found relevance during the Minoan era, hinting at a connection with the term "labyrinth." Plutarch notes that 'labrys' is the Lydian term for 'axe,' stating: "The Lydians call the double-edged axe 'labrys.'"

Originating in the East, the double axe's earliest representations are traced back to Çatalhöyük, an early Neolithic proto-city in Anatolia. Its depiction was not only artistic but symbolic, reflecting the complex, maze-like layout of the settlement. The oldest artifact of a double axe unearthed to date was at Gürcü Tepe, situated east of Çatalhöyük, within a similar cultural sphere. Gürcü Tepe's rural character suggests that the double axe served an apotropaic role, warding off evil.

At Çatalhöyük, one encounters the double axe intermingled with bull iconography within the community's intricate art. Bulls are rendered with detailed anatomical precision, symbolizing virility and fecundity within this early agrarian society. The double axe, appearing both in art and as tangible relics, likely bore a sacred import, potentially linked to male divinities or sacrificial rituals. These symbols reflect the spiritual practices and complex social structures of one of humanity's initial urban centers.

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The emblematic significance of the double axe on Crete is believed to stem from the Neolithic settlers' religious beliefs, which were characterized by reverence for an Earth Mother Goddess, indicative of the island's enduring spiritual traditions. In Minoan Crete, the labrys fulfilled both ritual and votive roles. It was the primary instrument in the ceremonial sacrifice of sacred bulls and was also offered in burial rites, caves, and peak sanctuaries. Seals and the Archanes Script provide evidence of the double axe's significance, which was so ingrained in Minoan culture that it predates the Prepalatial Period. The Minoan religion was anchored in the veneration of the Mother Goddess, a primordial figure of fertility, reproduction, and the cyclical rebirth of nature.

The double axe holds a venerable place in the mythology of ancient Near Eastern cultures, symbolizing the might of deities like the Hurrian sky and storm god, Teshub. In Hittite and Luwian traditions, this god was known as Tarhun, often depicted wielding a double axe alongside a triple thunderbolt—a clear emblem of his dominion over storms. This formidable storm god is also depicted on a relief brandishing a double axe, a symbol of his power, as he stands over a bull. In parallel, the Greek god Zeus is traditionally depicted hurling thunderbolts, employing the labrys, or pelekys, as his instrument to command the storm. Intriguingly, the modern Greek term for lightning, "astropeleki" (ἀστροπελέκι), translates to "star-axe," perpetuating the ancient association of the axe with celestial power.

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The worship of the double axe on the Greek island of Tenedos and other locations in southwestern Asia Minor is evidence that this reverence persisted into classical antiquity. The labrys also found its place in the worship practices associated with the Anatolian thunder god, further evidenced in the Hellenistic period with the cult of Zeus Labrayndeus, where the labrys continued to be a potent symbol of divine storm-making power. This continuity of the double axe's symbolism across different cultures and eras reflects its enduring significance in the religious and mythological landscape of the Mediterranean and Near East.

The depiction of bulls and double axes across various ancient cultures—from the bull frescoes of Çatalhöyük and Minoan bull-leaping iconography to the imagery of the Hittite and Luwian god Tarhun wielding a double axe over a bull—suggests a hypothetical cultural linkage. These symbols, recurring throughout ancient Anatolia and Crete, may signify a shared mythological language where the bull symbolizes strength and fertility, and the double axe represents divine authority, reflecting an enduring tradition of reverence and ritual that transcends regional and temporal boundaries.

A Roman bronze ensign of Jupiter Dolichenus. One can make out other deities including Hercules, Victoria, Luna and perhaps in the lower right hand corner is Mars. This amazing piece is on display in the Hungarian National Museum in Budapest, Hungary.

The Linguistic Enigma: Labrys, labraunda and the Greek Labyrinthos

The path of the labrys intertwines with the evolution of language, presenting a fascinating enigma that captivates linguists and historians alike. The term 'labrys' finds its echoes in the pre-Greek word 'labyrinthos,' an association derived from the interpretation of ancient texts, most notably a Linear B tablet that references the 'Mistress of the Labyrinth.' This coupling of the labrys with the intricate and complex structure of the labyrinth carries profound implications, suggesting a sacred dimension wherein the axe is not only a symbol of divine power but also an architectural metaphor. The linguistic fluidity of ancient Greek, where phonemes like 'd' and 'l' could interchange (Dabraundos, dabrys), adds layers of complexity to this enigma, inviting scholars to delve deeper into the maze of historical language development.

The word "labrys," which the Lydians or Carians used to refer to a double-edged axe, also serves as the basis for the name of the renowned labyrinth of Knossos, indicating an intriguing cultural connection between the civilizations of Western Anatolia and Minoan Crete. The labyrinth is often interpreted as the "place of the axe," a phrase that resonates with the central role of the labrys within both Minoan and Carian sacred spaces. The significance of the labrys is further highlighted by its enduring presence in Carian religious sites, such as Labraunda, where it was revered as a holy artifact.

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The term "labrys," first noted in English in 1901 according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is intimately linked to the ancient Carian sanctuary of Labranda. This connection highlights the significance of the labrys as a sacred object. The sanctuary's name, Labranda, is directly derived from this term, suggesting that it was a place where the labrys held religious importance. This interpretation casts the sanctuary not just as a geographical location but as a spiritual center dedicated to the veneration of the labrys, reinforcing its status as a potent symbol of divine or royal power in ancient Anatolia.

It is amazing how symbols and gods from different cultures came together at Labraunda. In the mountainous terrains of Caria, five kilometers west of Ortaköy, Mugla Province of modern Turkey, the labrys finds a sacred echo at this site, which is steeped in divine resonance. Here, the double-headed axe stands beside Zeus Labrandeus, a syncretic deity embodying the storm's might, a testament to the symbol's enduring sacral status. Revered along with the Olympian gods, it shows that religious and artistic traditions from Anatolia and Greece were constantly exchanging ideas and images. The presence of the labrys in this sacred milieu underscores its dynamic role as a venerated object of worship, a focal point of divine communion, and an emblem of spiritual continuity in the ancient Mediterranean tapestry.

A legendary account tells of a golden double-headed axe that held a place of honor in the Lydian capital of Sardes. King Gyges of Lydia gave the Carians this sacred labrys as a thank-you gift for their military assistance. The complexity of such an exchange underlines the ceremonial importance of the labrys, a symbol not easily relinquished or transferred between peoples. Once in the possession of the Carians, it was enshrined in the Temple of Zeus at Labranda, emphasizing its continued ritual significance.

In the city of Halicarnassus, the labrys became a numismatic emblem, frequently depicted on coinage, signaling its broader symbolic currency in Carian society. The museum in Bodrum houses coins that not only depict the familiar head of Apollo but also the esteemed figure of Zeus Labraundeus, distinguishable by the double-bladed Carian axe. This consistent iconography across various mediums and contexts, from coins to sanctuaries, denotes the profound link between the labrys and the divine, thereby weaving a thread of shared cultural and religious (and now also genetic) identity between the civilizations of the Greek mainland, Minoan Crete, and Western Anatolia.

Scholarly Discourse and Alternative Interpretations

Amidst the converging lines of historical evidence and myth, the origin and meaning of 'labyrinthos' spark ongoing scholarly debate. While the association with the labrys suggests a lineage tied to Minoan ritual spaces, other scholars cast a wider net, proposing alternatives such as a linguistic link to Greek 'laura' or even a borrowing from Carian terms. These discourses reflect the complexities and challenges inherent in unraveling the etymological threads of ancient words, with each interpretation offering a unique perspective on the intersections of language, archaeological evidence, culture, and religion. As the labrys continues to serve as a nexus for these discussions, its journey from a utilitarian axe to a profound cultural symbol encapsulates the rich spectrum of ancient Mediterranean spirituality and the scholarly pursuit to understand it.

When Was the Number 0 First Used?

Zero: A Journey from Emptiness to Infinity

The number zero, though seemingly simple, boasts a rich history intertwined with philosophical and mathematical advancements. Its journey from representing nothingness to becoming the foundation of our number system is a fascinating tale of human ingenuity.

Early Traces of Nothingness

The quest for zero began in the cradle of civilization, Mesopotamia. Around 4,000 years ago, Sumerian scribes used empty spaces in their clay tablets to denote the absence of a value in their counting system. This wasn't a true zero, but it marked the first attempt to represent nothingness. Similarly, Egyptians and Romans lacked a symbol for zero, hindering the development of complex mathematical concepts.

The Birth of Shunya in India

The concept of zero truly blossomed in ancient India. By the 5th century B.C., Indian mathematicians were using the Sanskrit word "shunya," meaning void or emptiness, to represent zero. This philosophical concept likely stemmed from Buddhist ideas of emptiness or "shunyata." Around the 9th century A.D., the Gwalior inscription emerged, showcasing the first documented use of a zero symbol in the decimal system, a small circle.

From India to the World

The brilliance of zero transcended borders. Arab mathematicians, like Al-Khwarizmi in the 8th century A.D., embraced the Indian numeral system, including zero. Al-Khwarizmi's work on algebra, which literally translates to "the balancing" (referring to equations), heavily relied on the concept of zero. Through Arabic translations, zero journeyed westward, reaching Europe by the 12th century.

Zero's Impact: A Mathematical Revolution

The arrival of zero in Europe sparked a mathematical revolution. The cumbersome Roman numeral system struggled to represent large numbers efficiently. Zero, along with the positional number system (where a digit's value depends on its place), offered a superior method for calculations. This paved the way for advancements in science, engineering, and navigation during the Renaissance and beyond.

Beyond Mathematics: A Philosophical Symbol

Zero's influence extended beyond mathematics. In philosophy, it challenged the notion of absolute nothingness, representing instead a potential or starting point. In physics, it signified the absence of a specific quantity, allowing for the development of concepts like absolute temperature.

Zero: A Legacy of Innovation

Today, zero stands as a cornerstone of mathematics and a testament to human curiosity and innovation. Its journey from representing emptiness to enabling us to explore infinity highlights the power of intellectual exchange and the transformative potential of a simple concept.