**Illustration:** ***Dimosthenis Vasiloudis***

The Mycenaean Word 'DAMOS': Its Importance and its Connection with the Classic Greek 'Demos' (municipality)

February 25, 2022

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Mycenaean Linear B script, the earliest form of Greek that we have any record of, is a truly fascinating artifact from antiquity. Developed around 1450 BCE in the Late Bronze Age Mycenaean civilization, Linear B evolved from the earlier Linear A script, used by the Minoan civilization. However, while Linear A remains largely undeciphered, Linear B was successfully deciphered in the mid-20th century by the British architect and cryptographer Michael Ventris. Unlike its predecessor, Linear B is not an ideographic script but rather a syllabic script used primarily for administrative purposes, such as recording transactions and inventory. It provides a unique window into the economic, social, and religious life of Mycenaean society, long before the classical era of Greece.

The Linear B inscriptions in Knossos and Pylos were interpreted to contain the Mycenaean-Greek term "damos" (da-mo). The phrase most likely relates to split collective landowners or to groups of people living in a rural farming community. According to the palace records that have been found so far, the term "forest" refers to a particular group of landowners or landowners who control the cultivation of large tracts of land and sell a portion of the produce to the wa-na-ka, ra-wa-ke-ta, and other officials of the palace in exchange for their services. The da-mo, an organized group of the people-community, served as the inspiration for the potential ra-wa-ke-ta military corps.

Damos and telestai (te-re-ta, "master of ceremonies") are also used interchangeably, indicating that perhaps landowners occasionally served as the people's representative. Damokoro, a compound adjective made from the Mycenaean words for municipality and the ko-re-te, was one of the axioms described in Pylos (governor). The damokoro were representatives chosen by the wanaka (supreme king). The term kerosija, which is etymologically related to the senates (gerousia) of classical Athens and Sparta, is only referenced once. The senate must have been a municipal council that gathered under the toparch during the Mycenaean era.

The term is connected to the later Doric Greek type "δᾶμoς" (damos) of the Ionian word "δῆμος" (demos) according to linguists. However, there is currently no proof that the term may have had political significance during the Mycenaean palace period, unlike in the later Archaic and Classical periods, when it also had the meaning of "ordinary people" (who did not come from an aristocratic race), the democratic portion in an ancient city, and the assembly of citizens, in addition to its significance for provincial or country land.

Ancient Greek Demos and Political Organization of Attica

The municipality (ancient Greek: δῆμoς) referred to the assembly of inhabitants as the main political body and later the administrative division of ancient Attica, the continuation of which is today's Attica, a region of Greece. Demes appear to have existed as rudimentary rural land divisions as early as the 6th century BC, but it wasn't until Cleisthenes' reforms in 508 BC that they really took on any significance. Prior to those changes, citizenship was determined by membership in a phratry, or familial group.

As a result of those changes, citizenship is now dependent on enrollment in the citizen lists of a state. At the end of Cleisthenes' reforms, Attica was divided into 139 demes, to which can be added Berenikidai (established in 224/223 BC), Apollonieis (201/200 BC), and Antinoeis (added in 126/127 BC). At the same time, demes were established in Attica's capital city itself, where they had not previously existed. The introduction of demes as the primary political subdivisions of the state reduced the genealogies, or aristocratic family groups, that had previously dominated the phratries.

Map of demes and tribes. Each color stands for one of the 10 tribes, each mark for an individual deme.

A deme served as a kind of smaller polis, and some demes, like Eleusis and Acharnae, were in reality important cities. There were numerous other civil, religious, and military functionaries in different demes, and each deme had a demarchos who oversaw its operations. Demes held their own religious celebrations and made money to spend.

The 10 tribes, or phylai, of Athens were formed by combining demes from the same region to form trittyes, bigger population groups. There was one tritty in each tribe, one from the city, one from the coast, and one from the interior.

New York: 55 Greek Antiquities Return to their Country of Origin

February 25, 2022

Today is the "Nostimon Imar" (νόστιμον ἦμαρ, “day of homecoming” in Homer's Odyssey), the sweet day of returning home after years of wandering, deals between illegal owners, fake purchase documents. But the antiquities always keep their truth, a truth intertwined with the history of the place that gave birth to them ".

With these words, the Greek Minister of Culture Lina Mendoni received yesterday in New York in a special ceremony that took place in the Manhattan Prosecutor's Office the stolen antiquities that were in the hands of the collector Michael Steinhard as well as some more, coming from another investigation.

In total, 55 archeological finds of high art with historical and symbolic value return from New York to Greece, 47 of them were confiscated by Steinhardt and eight of the Prehistoric era from Thessaly.

The Greek antiquities were handed over by the new Manhattan Attorney General Alvin Bragg, who expressed his enthusiasm for his contribution to the completion of this investigation, awarding the credit to the team of Greek expatriates, Assistant Attorney General Matthew Boctus Homeland Security Service Ricky Patel, emphasizing his appreciation for Greece and the Greek Minister of Culture.

He even described the team of Mathios Bogdanos as a "dream team", which, as he said, is synonymous with this research.

"It is my honor," he said in his address, "that I am here and to be a part of this work. Thank you for the very good work our partners, special agent Ricky Patel and of course our international partner. Madam Minister, it is a great privilege for us that you have trusted us and that we have you here and also that we are returning these archeological findings to you. Also to mention Matthew Bogdano and his team, which is synonymous with this research. "It's a dream team."

Loud message

In the "methodical and tireless effort" on the part of the Attorney General, with a special reference to both Alvin Bragg and his predecessor, Cyrus Vance, Mrs. Mendoni mentioned also in her speech.

In addition, she spoke warmly about Matthew Bogdanos and the contribution of the services of the Ministry of Culture and Sports, which provided key information that allowed the full documentation of the projects in the context of this difficult investigation.

"Your huge success," she said, "is not only the antiquities returning to their countries of origin, including Greece, but the loud message to all those involved in the illicit trafficking of cultural goods, that sooner or later the time will come , that their illegal transactions will be revealed and they themselves will be confronted with the consequences of their actions ".

Ms. Mendoni also expressed her belief that "the fight against the illicit trafficking of cultural property is won with patience, perseverance and method, but above all with the close cooperation of people, institutions and states that consciously fight against the great crime of antiquity."

"The illegal trafficking of the cultural treasures of our country is a serious trauma that hurts all Greeks around the world."

**Illustration by** **Dimosthenis Vasiloudis**

Did Classical Greeks Know About their Earlier 'Linear B' Writing System?

January 28, 2022

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Did classical Greece remember its Linear B heritage?

The Linear B writing system is an ancient script used by the Mycenaean Greeks from around 1450 to 1200 BC, a period which predates the later classical Greek civilization. The script was deciphered in the 20th century by British archaeologist Michael Ventris, and it was found to be an early form of the Greek language. But did the ancient Greeks of the classical period know about this earlier script? In this article, we will explore this question by delving into a fascinating story recounted by Plutarch about the tomb of Alcmene, mother of Hercules, and the discovery made by Agesilaus of Sparta (444–360 BC).

The Tomb of Alcmene and The Discovery of a ‘Bronze Tablet’

According to Greek mythology, Alcmene was the mortal mother of the demigod Hercules, who was fathered by Zeus. Her tomb was said to be located in the ancient city of Haliartus in Boeotia. Diodoros Siculus (5.57.3–5) and Plutarch (De Genio Socratis 577e–579b) give us some interesting stories about the very first writing system of the Greeks and tell us a story about Agesilaus, the king of Sparta, who visited the tomb while on a campaign against Thebes in 370 BC.

According to Plutarch, when Agesilaus of Sparta (444–360 BC) opened the tomb of Alcmene, mother of Hercules, located at Haliartos city in Boeotia, he and his men discovered a bronze tablet engraved with peculiar letters. Plutarch describes these symbols as "very ancient" and "barbaric" letters (“ἔχων γράμματα πολλὰ θαυμαστὰ ὡς παμπάλαια... αλλ' ίδιος τις ο τύπος και βαρβαρικός των χαρακτήρων”) that Agesilaus had to send to Egypt for decipherment. It is speculated that these symbols might have been an example of the Linear B writing system.

Agesilaus, who was an educated man and well-versed in the Greek language, found these symbols unfamiliar and indecipherable. The Egyptians' answer was not very convincing, so apparently they could not read the inscribed text.

Could this tablet be inscribed with Linear B characters?

Linear B was used primarily for administrative purposes in the Mycenaean palatial centers, such as Knossos and Pylos. The symbols on the bronze tablet found in Alcmene's tomb might be an example of this ancient script. If so, it is likely that Agesilaus and the ancient Greeks of his time were unaware of their civilization's earlier writing system.

Echoes of Oblivion: The Catastrophic Flood Described by Diodorus Siculus and its Impact on Ancient Civilizations

There is also the testimony of Diodoros Siculus, who talks to us about the lost knowledge of writing during a big flood that took place in prehistoric Greece. Diodorus Siculus was a first-century BC Greek historian, known for his extensive work, "Bibliotheca Historica," a universal history from mythological times to 60 BC. In his narratives, he recounted a significant flood event that allegedly wiped out almost all written documents and records, leading to an immense loss of historical knowledge and collective memory.

In his accounts, Diodorus spoke of a catastrophic flood, a deluge of epic proportions that wreaked havoc on ancient civilizations. This flood was said to be so devastating that it destroyed nearly all written monuments and records of the time. The devastation wrought by this flood not only resulted in material loss, but also led to a significant loss of cultural and historical memory. Entire civilizations were reduced to ruins, and their histories were lost to the abyss of time.

Diodorus Siculus also mentioned that the Athenians, despite being the founders of the city of Saïs in Egypt, were ignorant of their own history due to the effects of this flood. Saïs was an ancient Egyptian city located in the western Nile Delta. It is known to have had strong connections with ancient Greek civilization. The Athenians, being influential in Saïs's establishment, should ideally have had an extensive record of their interactions and achievements. However, the cataclysmic flood erased this part of their history, leaving them, like other civilizations affected by the disaster, oblivious to their historical achievements.

The flood that Diodorus Siculus spoke of had such a profound impact on the ancient world that it upended civilizations, obliterating their histories, and leading to an era of historical and cultural amnesia. This account is a poignant reminder of the fragility of human history and the consequences of natural disasters on our collective memory.

These accounts, however, must be read critically. While Diodorus Siculus' narrative provides a compelling view of an ancient catastrophe, it's important to remember that his writings are based on various sources and hearsay. His reports are yet to be validated by tangible archaeological evidence. Nevertheless, his accounts provide a fascinating glimpse into the understanding of ancient civilizations and their perception of catastrophic events.

Excerpt from the work of Diodoros Siculus about the Heliades Tenages and Actis:

[5.57.2] The most highly endowed of them by nature was Tenages, who was slain by his brothers because of their envy of him; but when their treacherous act became known, all who had had a hand in the murder took flight. Of their number Macar came to Lesbos, and Candalus to Cos; and Actis, sailing off to Egypt, founded there the city men call Heliopolis, naming it after his father; and it was from him that the Egyptians learned the laws of astrology.

[5.57.3] But when at a later time there came a flood among the Greeks and the majority of mankind perished by reason of the abundance of rain, it came to pass that all written monuments were also destroyed in the same manner as mankind;
[5.57.4] and this is the reason why the Egyptians, seizing the favourable occasion, appropriated themselves the knowledge of astrology, and why, since the Greeks, because of their ignorance, no longer laid any claim to writing, the belief prevailed that the Egyptians were the first men to effect the discover of the stars.
[5.57.5] Likewise the Athenians, although they were the founders of the city in Egypt men call Saïs, suffered from the same ignorance because of the flood. And it was because of reasons such as these that many generations later men supposed that Cadmus, the son of Agenor, had been the first to bring the letters from Phoenicia to Greece; and after the time of Cadmus onwards the Greeks were believed to have kept making new discoveries in the science of writing, since a sort of general ignorance of the facts possessed by the Greeks.

'Theoi': The Greek Term that Refers to Gods till Today, Found in Myceanaean Linear B Tablets!

January 21, 2022

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Emerging from the Mycenaean civilization around 1450 BCE, Linear B stands as an invaluable artifact and the earliest deciphered form of the Greek language. The evolution of Minoan Linear A and Linear B's status remained a mystery until the mid-20th century, when British cryptographer Michael Ventris unlocked their secrets. Unlike the still-mysterious Linear A, Linear B was used primarily for administrative tasks, detailing transactions, and keeping inventory within the Mycenaean society. The wealth of information it provides allows us a unique look into the economic, religious, and societal structures of the Late Bronze Age in Greece.

The Greek term “Gods," which refers to the supernatural beings of ancient Greek worship and is still used today by modern Greeks, is found since prehistoric times in Linear B tablets of the Mycenaean period in Knossos.

3 alternatives in Minoan Linear A for *pasiteoi* = “to all the gods” in Mycenaean Greek

The concept of "pasi/pantes theoi" [pa-si-te-o-i], “to all the gods,” as deciphered in specific tablets referring to worship practices exclusively of Knossos, refers theonymically to a set of deities that probably contain the whole of the Minoan "pantheon." According to the researchers, this report bears similarities with similar practices in the Near East, which use similar reports to appease foreign or non-local deities. Evidence of the continuity of the Minoan religion (or at least the worship of the Minoan gods) during the Mycenaean period in Knossos may be found here as well.

A fresco at Mycenae showing a ritual, a priestess in a cape holds a sword while another across from her holds a spear, two small men hover between them. In the lower panel a priestess is attended by a griffin. 1,400-1,200 BC.

In Homer there are also many references to "all Gods", but only in the religious comparison of Hellenistic civilization do we see a special cult that addresses all the gods, especially in the region of Asia Minor.

Etymology

From Proto-Hellenic *tʰehós (whence also Mycenaean Greek [te-o]), a thematicization of Proto-Indo-European *dʰéh₁s, from *dʰeh₁- (“to do, to put, to place”) + *-s. Cognate with Phrygian δεως (deōs, “to the gods”), Old Armenian դիք (dikʿ, “pagan gods”) and Latin fēriae (“festival days”), fānum (“temple”) and fēstus (“festive”).

Despite its superficial similarity in form and meaning, the word is not related to Latin deus; the two come from different roots. A true cognate of deus is Ζεύς (Zeús).

The Greek deities Athena and Hera as depicted in mycenaean religious art

'Alakasandu' - Alexander: A Greek Name in Hittite Cuneiform Text?

January 2, 2022

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

Cross-Cultural Echoes: The Intriguing Case of 'Alakasandu', a Hellenic Echo in Hittite Cuneiform?

In the ancient landscapes of human civilization, two cultures stood tall among the rest: the Hittites of Anatolia and the Mycenaean Greeks of Helladic Mainland. Unbeknownst to many, these cultures had surprising connections in antiquity. One such connection has to do with the fascinating correlation between the Greek name 'Alexander' and a Hittite name: 'Alakasandu'. Scholars have long debated whether these two names, separated by centuries and civilizations, could in fact be one and the same, finding their home in ancient Hittite cuneiform texts.

A total of 11,000 tablets with cuneiform texts were discovered after the 19th-century excavations of the Frenchman Charles Texier revealed Hattusa, the capital of the Hittite kingdom, in the hamlet of Boğazköy in modern-day Turkey. The Czech philologist Bedřich Hrozný (1879–1952) conducted the first decipherment of the language on these tablets in 1915 and demonstrated that they were written in the extinct Hittite language.

We may learn a lot about the Middle and Late Bronze Ages in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and the prehistoric Aegean from the archive of the tablets at Hattusa and texts discovered at other Hittite sites. The discovery of Greek names (such as Eteoklis, "Tawagalawa," and Atreas, "Attarissiya") in the Hittite archives by the Swiss archaeologist Emil Forrer in 1924 gave the sense that the shadowy time of the Trojan War may finally come into the light. The Czech philologist Bedich Hrozn (1879–1952) conducted the first decipherment of the language on these tablets in 1915 and demonstrated that they were written in the extinct Hittite language.

The identification of the names that emphasize the historical context of the Homeric poetry brought the interest to a close. It was also crucial to make mention of a conflict involving the city of "Wilusa" (Ilion/Troy). The monarch of Wilusa, who was a slave to the Hittites (thus referring to the Hittite records), and who had signed a treaty with the Hittite king Muwatali II in the 13th century BC, owes a dowry to the king of "Ahhiyawa" (Achaia), whose name has not been saved. His name was "Alaksandu," and his dowry included some nearby islands (perhaps Tenedos, Imbros, Lemnos, or Lesvos) ("Alaksandu", alternatively called Alakasandu or Alaksandos).

Clay cuneiform tablet; fragment. Hittite treaty between Muwattalli II of Hatti and Alakšandu of Wiluša. Nineteen lines., 1300 BC.

The Hittite Empire and the Name 'Alakasandu'

The Hittite Empire (c. 1600–1178 BCE) thrived in the region that now constitutes modern-day Turkey. The Hittites left behind a rich archive of cuneiform texts, a treasure trove of information for historians and archaeologists. Among these texts, the name 'Alakasandu' appears as the moniker of a significant king. This king was reportedly involved in a treaty with the Hittite ruler Muwatalli II (c. 1295–1272 BCE) in the late Bronze Age.

'Alakasandu' is documented as the king of Wilusa, an ancient city identified with classical Ilios or Ilion, known in the Western tradition as Troy. The debate over whether 'Alakasandu' could be an ancient rendering of 'Alexander' primarily arises from this connection.

The Greek Name 'Alexander'

'Alexander' is a name steeped in Greek tradition, with its roots tracing back to the language's ancient form. It is derived from the Greek 'Alexandros,' literally translating to 'defending men' or 'protector of men,' a compound of 'alexein' (to defend) and 'andros' (of men).

The most famous bearer of this name, Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE), ruled over a millennium after the Hittite king 'Alakasandu.' Alexander's conquests and expeditions spread Greek influence throughout the ancient world, marking a significant period of Hellenistic culture.

The Connection Between 'Alakasandu' and 'Alexander'

The idea that 'Alakasandu' could be a Hittite rendering of 'Alexander' has its roots in historical linguistics, particularly the study of Luwian, a close relative of Hittite. Scholars suggest that the Luwians, like the Hittites, resided in Anatolia and interacted with the Greeks, facilitating the sharing of names and titles.

Several phonetic and linguistic parallels are drawn between 'Alakasandu' and 'Alexander'. Some researchers suggest that the Hittite and Luwian languages might have phonetically rendered 'Alexander' as 'Alakasandu.' Given the position of Wilusa (Troy) near the Aegean Sea, close to the ancient Greek world, there could have been ample opportunity for cultural and linguistic exchange.

Map of anatolian languages distribution.

Counterarguments and Challenges

Despite these compelling links, there remain significant challenges in definitively asserting that 'Alakasandu' is an ancient form of 'Alexander'.

The complexities of ancient language translation and phonetic rendering often lead to discrepancies and ambiguities. There's always a possibility that similarities between 'Alakasandu' and 'Alexander' are coincidental rather than indicative of a linguistic link.

The question of whether 'Alakasandu' is an early form of 'Alexander' gives us a fascinating glimpse into the interconnections and interactions between ancient cultures. While it might never be conclusively proven, the debate itself illuminates the richness and complexity of our human past. It is a testament to the incredible journey of cultural transmission and the enduring legacy of names across ages and civilizations.

Given that in the Homeric poems everything happened on the occasion of the abduction of Helen by Alexander or Paris, maybe during a "marriage", how close are we to connecting these events with the Trojan War?

First Bronze Age Volcanic Eruption Victims found after 3,500 years

December 29, 2021

A human skeleton and dog skeleton were found in Turkey that age back to the Thera eruption in modern-day Santorini.

Some 3,500 years after the eruption of Thera (modern-day Santorini) in the late Bronze age, skeletons of a human and a dog were found along the Turkish coast among tsunami debris.

This is a remarkable find by Dr. Beverly Goodman-Tchernov of the University of Haifa and Dr. Vasif Şahoğlu of Ankara University who wrote up the study together for the peer-reviewed journal the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS).

Not only do these findings provide more insight into how catastrophic the eruption was for the region, they also give researchers more information for the study of the chronology and history of the Bronze Age. Using calibrated radiocarbon ages from other tsunami debris, the scientists were able to estimate the skeletons as having come from sometime around 1612 BCE.

"This discovery was the outcome of many years of excavations by my colleague Dr. Prof. Şahoğlu combined with sedimentological analysis to assess the deposit origins," said Goodman-Tchernov. "He invited me to come to Turkey in order to assist him to determine whether an ash layer at the site was linked to the Thera Eruption, and when I saw the section, I noticed that there were some similarities immediately below the ash layer to tsunami deposits I had seen elsewhere."

The excavations took place over 10 years, ending in 2019. They were conducted by an international team led by Şahoğlu under the permit of Turkey's Ministry of Culture and Tourism.

Akrotiri archaeological site, Santorini, Greece

"We proceeded to study the deposit, which for many years frustrated and confused us until it became clear that our error was thinking that only a small part of the deposit was tsunami-related, and in fact, the tsunami deposit was much larger than we could have imagined," recounted Tcherov. "Once we understood this, the entire excavation area fit together logically, and the discovery of the human skeleton was like receiving confirmation from the ancients."

The discovery was uncovered using multiple disciplines like earth sciences, geology and archaeology. The evidence gathered by the study shows that massive tsunamis descended on the northern Aegean. This contradicts the belief previously held that assumed that the destruction of the region was due to volcanic ash fallout.

The Thera eruption was a major critical event for the region bringing with it death, destruction and disaster. Despite the earthquakes, ash and tsunamis that plagued the region, however, this is the first time that remains of victims were found. The area in which these skeletons were found indicates to researchers that perhaps survivors were not able to rescue him on time.

"Natural disasters, whether eruptions, tsunamis, earthquakes, hurricanes or plagues, have long been a part of the story of humanity," said Goodman Tchernov. "Every one of us is descendent from people who, whether by luck, skill or accident of geography, managed to survive these challenges. Çeşme man, and other remains from the rescue effort, gives us an opportunity to time travel into the past and better understand what the people experienced at that time. Through this, we can better prepare for what is possible in the future by understanding what happened in the past.

Source: https://www.jpost.com/archaeology/article-...

Representational image of an underwater temple. Source: Vitalis Arnoldus / Adobe Stock

Spain: Researchers Believe they Found Fabled Temple of Hercules Gaditanus

December 22, 2021

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

A significant pilgrimage place in antiquity was the fabled temple of Hercules Gaditanus, also known as Melqart in Phoenician times. The temple, which dates at least to the ninth century BC, is said to have seen the likes of historical personalities like Julius Caesar and the Carthaginian conqueror Hannibal walk by.

Finding the temple, which has been sought after for ages by historians and archaeologists, has become something of a holy grail for them despite the fact that its location is still unknown thousands of years later.

Aerial view of the temple’s possible location.

Now there is a possible answer to this great mystery. Ricardo Belizón, a Ph.D. student at Seville University in southern Spain, has come up with a new hypothesis, which is backed by scientists from his university and the Andalusian Institute of Historical Heritage (IAPH). Thanks to free software and digital terrain modeling, Belizón has identified traces of a monumental building in the Cao de Sancti Petri, a shallow channel in the Bay of Cádiz between the towns of Chiclana de Frontera and San Fernando, in the southern region of Andalusia.

Hypothetical view that the archaeologist García y Bellido made of the Hercules temple, in 1968, based on the one in Jerusalem.

The temple of Hercules Gaditanus is mentioned in classical Greek and Latin literature as the place where Julius Caesar wept bitterly before a representation of Alexander the Great and where the Carthaginian conqueror Hannibal went to offer thanks for the success of his military campaign a century and a half earlier. All these references mention “a changing environment, in contact with the sea, subject to the changing tides, in a temple where there must have been port structures and a seafaring environment,” says Milagros Alzaga, head of the Center for Underwater Archaeology (CAS), who also participated in the research.

A 3D model showing the Boqueron point in San Fernando (Cádiz) and the rectangular structure of the possible temple of Hercules Gaditanus now submerged under the Caño of Sancti Petri

The proposal made presently by Seville University and the IAPH is within a radius considered to be the most evident, following decades of academic dispute and several temple location recommendations. The location is a sizable swampy canal that is dominated by an islet and the Sancti Petri fortress that towers above it. The region has produced significant archaeological artifacts for more than two centuries, some of which are now on display in the Museum of Cadiz. They include enormous marble and bronze sculptures of Roman emperors and different statuettes from the Phoenician era. All of these findings contributed to defining the precise position of the Hercules Gaditanus temple as being located between the islet's slopes and the Boquerón point, an area of fine sand and rocky intertidal zone.

Who is Hercules in Greek and Roman mythology?

Hercules is one of the most renowned figures in ancient mythology, known for his superhuman strength and his twelve labors. However, there's an important distinction to make when discussing this legendary hero: the difference between his Greek and Roman portrayals.

In Greek mythology, the hero is known as Heracles (meaning "Glory of Hera"). Born to Zeus, the king of the gods, and Alcmene, a mortal woman, Heracles' life was marked by both glory and suffering, much of it orchestrated by Hera, Zeus's jealous wife. Outraged by Zeus's infidelity and the birth of Heracles, Hera sought to make the hero's life as difficult as possible.

One of the most famous episodes from Heracles' life is the Twelve Labors, a series of near-impossible tasks he was forced to perform as penance for killing his own wife and children during a fit of madness, another tragedy instigated by Hera. These labors ranged from slaying the Nemean Lion and capturing the Golden Hind to cleaning the Augean stables in a single day and capturing the three-headed dog, Cerberus, from the Underworld.

Over time, Heracles became a symbol of strength, courage, and endurance. His adventures intertwine with other famous Greek myths, and his legacy was solidified when he was granted immortality and became a god, joining the Olympians after his mortal death.

The Romans were heavily influenced by Greek culture and mythology, often adopting and adapting Greek deities and stories. In Roman lore, Heracles was transformed into Hercules, and while the core elements of his story remained largely unchanged, certain aspects of his character and tales were adapted to fit the Roman worldview.

Hercules was worshipped as both a god and a hero in Rome. He was especially revered as a protector of humanity, a role that saw him incorporated into various aspects of Roman daily life. For instance, the Hercules Cult was notably popular in Rome, with Hercules being honored for his strength, bravery, and protective qualities.

One significant Roman addition to Hercules's story was his relationship with the goddess Roma, a personification of the city of Rome. By aligning Hercules with Roma, the Romans reinforced their city's greatness and divine protection.

Real Mycenaean Religious Frescoes Appear in 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey'

December 20, 2021

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The vibrant frescoes that were discovered in the Religious Center of Mycenae are now depicted in the brand-new video game "Assassin's Creed Odyssey," which features ancient Greek themes.

The ancient world has always captivated the imaginations of historians, archaeologists, and enthusiasts alike. It offers a glimpse into the lives, cultures, and beliefs of our distant ancestors. One such captivating civilization is the Mycenaean civilization, which flourished in Greece during the Late Bronze Age. In a fascinating convergence of history and gaming, the Mycenaean religious frescoes have made a remarkable appearance in the virtual realm through the popular video game 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey.' Let us delve into the significance of this inclusion and explore the allure of these ancient artworks.

The Mycenaean Civilization

The Mycenaean civilization emerged around the 16th century BCE and reached its peak during the late 13th century BCE. It was renowned for its impressive palaces, fortified cities, and extensive trade networks. The Mycenaeans inherited a rich cultural heritage from their Minoan neighbors, blending it with their own unique religious practices and artistic expressions.

Religious Frescoes in Mycenaean Culture

Among the most striking features of Mycenaean art are the vivid frescoes found in various archaeological sites. These frescoes, painted on palace walls and in private dwellings, offer valuable insights into the religious beliefs and rituals of the Mycenaean people.

Depictions of gods, goddesses, and religious ceremonies adorn these frescoes, showcasing the Mycenaeans' deep-rooted spiritual connection. The gods depicted include Poseidon, Zeus, Hera, Athena, and others, with each deity symbolizing different aspects of the natural world and human existence.

The Inclusion of Mycenaean Frescoes in 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey'

'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey,' developed by Ubisoft, is a critically acclaimed action role-playing video game that immerses players in ancient Greece during the Peloponnesian War. Known for its meticulous attention to historical accuracy, the game recreates the ancient world with stunning detail.

Aerial of the Cult Centre at Mycenae with the Tsountas House to the left

In a remarkable effort to bring history to life, the game designers incorporated Mycenaean frescoes as part of the game's exploration and storytelling. Players can encounter these meticulously recreated artworks within the virtual spaces of the game, allowing them to experience the vibrancy and significance of Mycenaean religious art firsthand.

The traditionally referred-to "religious center" is located in the southwest corner of the Mycenaean acropolis. It is a collection of religious structures, as attested to by the worship discoveries as well as the architectural remnants. Christos Tsountas, a Greek archaeologist, began the excavation at the religious complex. Alan Wace, William D. Taylour, and Georgios Mylonas proceeded and finished the work.

Research established the presence of an altar, a central hearth, a sanctuary, as well as frescoes in the largest room of the complex, known as the "room with the mural," from the early stages of its construction.

On the first level of the mural that is on display in the Museum of Mycenae, two female characters are portrayed.

While the left person, wearing a Minoan outfit, is holding a scepter or spear, the right figure is holding a big sword and is clad in a long, fringed robe. Two male, naked figures that resemble Tanagra shrine idols, or perhaps souls, are hovering between them. A female figure clutching sheaves is depicted on the left and bottom levels of the wall. She is most likely accompanied by a griffin. She wears the distinctive plume worn by sphinxes and the "Prince-Priest" of Knossos, among others.

Details of skirts at the Shrine fresco at Mycenae (©Dimitrios Pergialis).

We lack a precise interpretation of the make-up and personality of these figures, but many opinions have been expressed regarding the sword-wielding figure, identifying her as a "Goddess of War," perhaps a precursor to Pallas Athena, and the figure offering sheaves, identifying her as a deity that represents fertility and agriculture.

It is written as "si-to-po-ti-ni-ja" (Sito Potnia), which means "Lady of the Wheat," in an inscription in Mycenaean Greek (linear B) that has been discovered. This is most likely another name or surname for the goddess Demeter or one of her forebears in the Bronze Age. Her gestures are similarly similar to those of the "Goddess of the Snakes," the primary fertility goddess of Minoan Crete, who held two snakes in each hand.

*House of Frescoes. Presentation Scene (photo by* AlMare)

The Significance of the Inclusion

The inclusion of Mycenaean frescoes in 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey' serves multiple purposes. Firstly, it introduces players to a lesser-known aspect of ancient Greek civilization, shedding light on the profound role of religion in the daily lives of the Mycenaean people. By interacting with these artworks, players gain a deeper understanding of the spiritual beliefs and rituals that shaped Mycenaean society.

Secondly, it showcases the dedication of game developers to historical authenticity. By painstakingly recreating these frescoes, Ubisoft demonstrates their commitment to creating an immersive and educational experience for players. The inclusion of Mycenaean religious frescoes aligns with the overall goal of 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey," which is to transport players to an accurate depiction of ancient Greece.

Lastly, the game's inclusion of Mycenaean frescoes encourages players to explore the broader cultural and historical context of the Mycenaean civilization. It sparks curiosity and serves as a gateway for further research, inspiring players to delve deeper into the fascinating world of ancient Greece and its rich artistic heritage.

The appearance of Mycenaean religious frescoes in 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey' marks a significant milestone in the portrayal of ancient civilizations in video games. By weaving together history, art, and interactive gameplay, the inclusion of these artworks offers players a unique opportunity to engage with the Mycenaean culture on a visual and emotional level.

As we traverse the virtual landscapes of 'Assassin's Creed: Odyssey,' we find ourselves not only embarking on a thrilling adventure but also uncovering the profound religious beliefs and artistic expressions of a civilization that has long faded into the annals of history. The game's dedication to historical accuracy and its celebration of the Mycenaean civilization through their religious frescoes contribute to a richer appreciation of ancient Greece and its lasting influence on our world today.

God Dionysus in Mycenaean Linear B Script: Confirmation of Dionysus's early worship in Mycenean Greece

December 11, 2021

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Emerging from the shadows of antiquity, the Mycenaean Linear B script serves as the oldest deciphered form of Greek, dating back to approximately 1450 BCE. Its origins trace back to the enigmatic Linear A of the Minoan civilization, but unlike its predecessor, Linear B’s code was cracked in the mid-20th century by the indefatigable efforts of British architect and cryptographer Michael Ventris. Primarily an administrative tool, Linear B was used for managing transactions and inventory, offering an illuminating lens into the economic, societal, and religious aspects of the Mycenaean civilization during the Late Bronze Age.

The first half of the 20th century saw the "orthodoxy" of the belief that Dionysus was a superfluous non-Greek god placed "very recently" (about 750 BC) into the Greek pantheon due to Erwin Rohde's book Psyche. This "orthodoxy" was somewhat contested by a number of fascinating archaeological finds made between the 1920s and 1970s. The first was the reaction to the word "Di-wo-nu-so" on three Linear B tablets with Pylos dates (about 1300 BC).

John L. Caskey uncovered a significant archaeological discovery at the shrine of St. Irene of Kea, which demonstrates continued religious activity extending back to the 13th century BC. The earliest known dedication to this shrine names Dionysus as the worshipped deity. Another Linear B inscription (KH Gq 5) discovered during the Agia Aikaterini square excavation on Chania's Kastelli hill is a noteworthy illustration of Late Minoan III B1 Zeus and Dionysus worship. It describes the sacrifice of honey to the gods Zeus and Dionysus as well as the existence of a Zeus sanctuary at Kydonia.

These findings showed that Dionysus was not a new god when the Iliad was composed around 750 BC, and that the practice of Dionysian worship was probably previously known to the Greek-speaking population of the Mycenaean Period. Even so, it seems as though he was familiar with the Greek-speaking populations, despite our insistence that he wasn't Greek.

Etymology

Throughout antiquity, Zeus (genitive Dios) has been associated with the dio- prefix in Ancient Greek, and the name's variations appear to refer to an initial *Dios-nysos.

The origin of the second element, -nūsos, is unknown. Although Pherecydes of Syros had proposed nũsa as an archaic term meaning "tree" by the sixth century BC, it is possibly connected to Mount Nysa, the birthplace of the deity in Greek mythology, where he was nursed by nymphs (the Nysiads). The Nysiads are given their names on a vase made by Sophilos (nusae). According to Kretschmer, the word "nusē" (daughter in law or bride, I-E *snusós, Sanskr. snus) is a Thracian word with the same meaning as "nýmphē," a word related to "nuos" (daughter in law or bride). He proposed that Dionysus is the "son of Zeus" because the male form is (nūsos). Dionysus, according to Jane Ellen Harrison, means "little Zeus." The name's pre-Greek origin has been proposed by Robert S. P. Beekes since all efforts to determine its Indo-European origins have been met with skepticism.

Detail View of Sophilos Dinos Depicting Dionysus, this is the oldest known image of the God. (around 570 BC)

Recent research suggests that Dionysus was one of the first gods to be named in mainland Greek culture. Nothing is known about the particular religion that Dionysus may have practiced at the time, and the majority of available material focuses only on his name. In addition to the connotations of Zeus and oxen, the names Eleuther and Eleutheros have etymological ties to the Latin term Liber Pater, suggesting that this may have been another name for Dionysus. According to Károly Kerényi, these cues suggest that the main worship of Dionysus and important stories persisted even in the thirteenth century BC.

At Knossos in Minoan Crete, men were regularly given the name "Pentheus," which refers to a figure from later Dionysian myth and also means "suffering." Kerényi asserted that giving a child such a name suggests a profound religious connection—possibly as an epithet of Dionysus himself, whose mythology represents a god who must experience suffering before conquering it. Pentheus suffers at the hands of Dionysus' followers in later stories, and according to Kerényi, this suggests a deep religious connection. According to Kerényi, the expression "man who suffers" presumably first applied to the god and then, as the story progressed, just to certain individuals. Sophilos, an Attic potter, uncovered the earliest known image of Dionysus and his name in about 570 BC.

Dionysus was already regarded as more than merely a wine-related god, as evidenced by the iconography found on ceramics from the seventh century. He was associated with marriage, death, sacrifice, and sexuality, and he had a well-established retinue of dancers and satyrs. A frequent motif in these early portrayals was the transformation of the god's worshipers into hybrid creatures, generally represented by both domesticated and wild satyrs, representing the end of civilizational life and the return to nature.

3D Video of the Acropolis of Mycenae in Prehistoric Greece

December 9, 2021

The Mycenaean palace has been digitally recreated in all its splendor by the Mycenae Foundation and Professor Nikolaos Lianos, who teaches architecture at the Democritus University of Thrace. The reconstruction is based on the findings of Professor Christos Maggidis, the director of the excavations of Mycenae’s Lower Town.

Along with the architecture of the palace, video shows also the throne room. A piece of stone that was recovered in the excavations is part of the original throne on which the Mycenaean rulers sat, from which they would look down on a fire that was placed in the middle of the room.

Mycenae (Ancient Greek: Μυκῆναι or Μυκήνη, Mykē̂nai or Mykḗnē) is an archaeological site near Mykines in Argolis, north-eastern Peloponnese, Greece.

In the second millennium BC, Mycenae was one of the major centres of Greek civilization, a military stronghold which dominated much of southern Greece, Crete, the Cyclades and parts of southwest Anatolia. The period of Greek history from about 1600 BC to about 1100 BC is called Mycenaean in reference to Mycenae. At its peak in 1350 BC, the citadel and lower town had a population of 30,000 and an area of 32 hectares.

The first correct identification of Mycenae in modern literature was during a survey conducted by Francesco Grimani, commissioned by the Provveditore Generale of the Kingdom of the Morea in 1700, who used Pausanias's description of the Lion Gate to identify the ruins of Mycenae.

'Wanax': The Mycenaean Greek Word for Supreme (Military-Religious) Ruler-King of the Palace

December 7, 2021

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Mycenaean Linear B script, a precious linguistic legacy dating back to around 1450 BCE, provides a rich historical record of the Late Bronze Age Mycenaean civilization in ancient Greece. This intriguing syllabic writing system, an evolution of the enigmatic Linear A used by the Minoan civilization, represents the earliest deciphered form of Greek. Thanks to the groundbreaking work of British architect and cryptographer Michael Ventris in the 1950s, Linear B opened up a hitherto unknown window into the intricacies of Mycenaean administrative, economic, and socio-religious practices. Its complexity and the important role it played in documenting everyday affairs attest to the advanced nature of the civilization that created and utilized it.

An ancient Greek word for "tribe chief, lord, or (military) leader" is anax (Greek: ἄvαξ; from earlier ϝάναξ, wánax). It was also carried over from Mycenaean Greece and is one of the two Greek names that are generally interpreted as "king," the other being Basileus. Homeric Greek makes notable use of it, including for Agamemnon. Anassa, or "queen," is the feminine form (from wánassa, which comes from *wánakt-ja).

Archaic inscription [...]Ι ϜΑΝΑΚΤΙ (*[...]i wanakti*, "to the king") on ceramic fragment, here shown upside down; a warrior bearing a spear and mounted on a horse is also depicted.

The word anax, which is represented in Linear B script in Mycenaean Greek as wa-na-ka and in the feminine form as wa-na-sa (later ἄνασσα, ánassa), derives from the stem wanakt- (nominative *ϝάνακτς, genitive ϝάνακτος). Eastern Greek dialects (such as Ionic Greek) deleted the digamma, which was pronounced /w/, fairly early on, even before the Phoenician script was adopted. Other dialects kept the digamma until well after the classical era.

The Sanskrit word vanij, which means "trader," has been used to equate the Greek title to that of Indra, but it was originally employed as a title in the Rigveda. If so, the word might have sprung from Proto-Indo-European *wen-a-, which roughly translates as "carrier of spoils" (compare the etymology of lord, "giver of bread"). Robert Beekes contends that the phrase is most likely from the pre-Greek substrate and that there isn't a clear IE derivation.

Mycenaean civilization was distinguished by the construction of palaces and walled villages during the Mediterranean Bronze Age. It is generally acknowledged that the wanax in the Mycenaean social structure serves as a king, although he has a number of tasks that go beyond administrative responsibilities. With the decline of Mycenaean society during the Late Bronze Age Collapse, the name "wanax" is thought to have finally changed into the homeric term "anax." Basileus would take on the Greek title of king, which is thought to have been a subordinate position during the Mycenaean era, comparable to chieftains and regional authorities.

As the pinnacle of Mycenaean culture, the wanax presided over a powerful hierarchical state government that was centralized, a pattern that was widespread in the Bronze Age Mediterranean and Near East. Because of this hierarchical comparison to a king, many of the wanax's responsibilities had to do with governance, conflict resolution, diplomacy, economics, and religion.

karabel - ηροδοτος.jpg — **Illustration by** **Dimosthenis Vasiloudis**

Herodotus' Error: Misreading the Hittite 'Karabel Rock Relief' as Egyptian

November 29, 2021

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

The monument may have been mentioned by Herodotus in his history, where he identified the carved figure as the Egyptian pharaoh Sesostris and the hieroglyphics as Egyptian

The Hittite "Karabel" Relief, also known as the Karabel Hittite Rock Relief, is a rock-cut relief located in the Turkish province of Izmir, near the town of Torbal. This monument is known for its historical significance and the detailed depiction of a Hittite warrior, a powerful symbol of the Hittite Empire that flourished during the Late Bronze Age in Anatolia and the Levant, from approximately 1600 to 1200 BC.

On the southern slope of a mountain, on the left side of the road, in the Karabel Pass of the Kemalpaşa-Torbal highway, is the location of substantial relief. It is 2.5 meters tall and around 1.5 meters broad. A man figure is shown standing, holding a bow and a spear in his right and left hands, respectively. The person is dressed in a tunic and a cone-shaped hat. Among experts, this alleviation is known as Karabel A. Three lines of an extremely worn-out Hieroglyphic Luwian inscription can just about be made out between the warrior's head and the spear. The lowest half of the relief sustained significant damage from the treasure hunters in 2017 and 2019.

The Karabel Relief, sketch of Charles Texier.

A Hittite Mystery Misinterpreted by Herodotus

The figure on the relief is believed to be the Hittite King Tarkasnawa (also known as Tarkondemos), based on an inscription in the Luwian language that was found near the relief. The figure is shown wearing a pointed hat and a short skirt, both characteristic of Hittite depictions of their rulers. In one hand, he holds a spear, while the other hand is raised in a gesture of worship or salute.

However, the Karabel relief has a curious connection with the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who lived in the 5th century BC. In his "Histories", Herodotus described a monument that he encountered on his travels through what is now western Turkey. He wrote that this monument depicted an armed warrior and was inscribed with Egyptian hieroglyphics.

This statement by Herodotus has caused some confusion among scholars, as the Karabel relief is clearly not Egyptian in style or script but Hittite. It appears that Herodotus made a mistake in his identification. This mistake may be due to his unfamiliarity with the Hittite Empire and its language, as it had already collapsed several centuries before his time and its history and culture were not yet widely known or studied.

Moreover, the script on the Karabel relief is not hieroglyphic but rather in a form known as Luwian hieroglyphs or Anatolian hieroglyphs, which is quite distinct from Egyptian hieroglyphics. Luwian hieroglyphs were used in the region during the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE, notably by the Hittite and Luwian civilizations. Therefore, Herodotus might have confused this with the more famous Egyptian hieroglyphs.

Thus, Herodotus's mistake provides us with an interesting example of the limitations and challenges of historical and archaeological interpretation, especially in times when knowledge about ancient cultures was still limited or obscured by time. It also reminds us of the often complex and nuanced nature of ancient interactions and influences and the role of modern archaeological and linguistic studies in helping to shed light on these historical riddles.

Herodotus may have made reference to the monument in his history, identifying the carved figure as Egyptian pharaoh Sesostris as follows:

"... in Ionia there are two figures of this man carved upon rocks, one on the road by which one goes from the land of Ephesus to Phocaia, and the other on the road from Sardis to Smyrna. In each place there is a figure of a man cut in the rock, of four cubits and a span in height, holding in his right hand a spear and in his left a bow and arrows, ... and from the one shoulder to the other across the breast runs an inscription carved in Egyptian hieroglyphics, saying, 'This land with my shoulders I won for myself."
(Herodotus II.106)

The Sardis-Ephesus route passes via Karabel Pass instead of the historic Sardis-Smyrna road, and it is important to take into account that the Ephesus-Phocai road is located much to the south. Herodotus' description was either inaccurate, or it's possible he was referring to a separate but related relief. The Torbal relief's recent discovery suggests that the area may have housed a number of other monuments of a similar nature. It goes without saying that the figure in the relief is not a ruler of Egypt. David Hawkins published the reading of the Karabel A inscription in 1998. Hawkins reads the inscription's three lines as follows:

Tarkasnawa, King of Mira (land).
[Son of] Alantalli, King of Mira land.
Grandson of ..., King of Mira land.

The reading of Alantalli is uncertain. In addition, even though the grandfather's name cannot be read, it has been hypothesized that it is Kupanta-Kuruntiya. Tarkondemos, who is seen in a few Boazköy seals, is also identified as Tarkasnawa by Hawkins reading. The Tarkasnawa reading has received widespread support from academics. The Hittite domain's vassal kingship of Mira was led by Alantalli, who is known to have lived during Tudhaliya IV's reign. As a result, his son Tarkasnawa should have lived during the reigns of Tudhaliya IV and/or Suppiluliuma II, placing the monument around the end of the 13th century BC.

The Surrounding Area of the Misread Monument

North of the Karabel, a few hundred meters A relief included a related relief, two distinct hieroglyphic inscriptions, and another relief. Karabel B, Karabel C1, and Karabel C2 were the names given to the three of them, respectively. Sadly, between 1977 and 1982, when the adjoining road was being widened, these three engravings were completely obliterated. A standing male figure with a spear in his outstretched left hand and perhaps a bow on his right shoulder was likewise depicted on Karabel B. With the exception of the first character, which was possibly "King," the worn-out writing on the relief was unintelligible.

Only a few meters to the north of Karabel B, the inscriptions C1 and C2 were found on the perpendicular surfaces of the same rock. The C1 inscription, which contained five Egyptian letters, was the best preserved. Hawkins' interpretation of Karabel A suggests that C1 could be partially translated as "King Tarkasnawa" (ASINUS-wa REX). The C2 inscription proved more difficult to read, but it may have contained the names of the kings Tarkasnawa and Alantalli on the first line of the three-line inscription.

The Parian Chronicle: The Oldest Chronology of Ancient Greece

October 29, 2021

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

The Parian Chronicle: A Glimpse into Greek Myth and History

The Parian Chronicle, or Parian Marble, is a fascinating testament to how the ancient Greeks viewed their past—a blend of the mythic and the historic. This article delves deep into this unique artifact, its history, and the tales it tells.

The Marble and Its Journey

The Parian Chronicle, inscribed on a stele, is a chronological table that charts the years from 1582 BC to 299 BC. It was discovered on the island of Paros in two main fragments. Sold in Smyrna in the early 17th century, the inscription made its way to Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, and was deciphered and published in the Arundel Marbles, Marmora Arundelliana, by John Selden in London (1628–9). Notably, one of these sections has vanished, believed to have been lost during the tumult of the English Civil War.

Part of the Parian Marble, a chronicle of mythological and historical events in Greece from 1580 BC to 263 BC. There are 3 parts, one was lost in London during the English Civil war, one is kept the Ashmolean Museum, and one in the Archaelogical Museum of Paros, Greece.

Another fragment, the base of the stele containing the end of the text, surfaced in 1897. This portion of the inscription details events from 336/35 to 299/98 BC. The two prior fragments chronicled events spanning 1582/81–355/54 BC.

The Ashmolean Museum in Oxford houses one of these upper fragments, preserving events from the mythical, like the Flood of Deucalion, to the historical, such as the Trojan War. The shorter fragment from 1897 resides in the Archaeological Museum of Paros in Greece.

What's striking about the Parian Chronicle is its seamless integration of myths and legends with events that modern historians recognize as factual. To the Greeks, these stories were history; their myths were not mere tales but a representation of their past. As Peter Green once noted regarding the Parian Marble, the chronicle "uses chronological specificity as a guarantee of truth" and anchors the mythical past in historical time.

Chronicles of a Bygone Era: Tales from the Marble

1581 BC, Cecrops and the Birth of Athens: Before it was Athens, it was Cecropia, named after King Cecrops. The famous contest between Poseidon and Athena for the city’s favor, a defining moment in Athenian mythology, is curiously omitted from the Parian Chronicle.

1528 BC, Great Flood of Deucalion: The Great Flood of Deucalion recorded on the marble is a testament to the universal nature of flood myths. Much like Noah's Flood in the Bible, Deucalion’s Flood serves as a reminder of a divine reset—a cataclysmic event that reshapes civilization.

1520 BC, The Birth of 'Hellenes': Hellen, son of Deucalion, ascends to the throne of Phthiotis. From him, the name 'Hellenes' is born. While neighboring populations adopted this name, the Romans held on to the older term, "Graikos." Thus, in the West, the Greeks are still referred to as Greeks.

1294 and 1259 BC, Rise of Heroes: A period that witnessed the rule of legendary figures like King Minos of Crete and King Aegeas of Athens, Theseus, another iconic figure, assumed the Athenian throne in 1259 BC, laying the groundwork for democracy.

1256 BC, The Amazonian Invasion of Athens: A dramatic event sees the Amazons marching on Athens, only to be repelled by Theseus at the Hill of the Muses.

1218 BC, The Trojan War Starts: A decade-long war encapsulated love, heroism, and tragedy, culminating in the fall of Troy.

1209 BC: Troy is conquered

907 and 895 BC, The Dawn of Literature and Commerce: The appearance of the epic poet Homer was followed closely by Aegina minting silver coins, indicating the dawning of a historic age well-recorded and corroborated by multiple sources.

Detail from the shorter fragment base of the stele, found in 1897, that is in a museum on Paros. It contains chronicle entries for the years 336–299 BC.

The Parian Chronicle's Significance

While the Parian Chronicle bridges mythic tales and historical events, its precision from 895 BC onwards lends credibility to its earlier records. Whether one views the marble's earlier dates with skepticism or belief, its significance is undeniable. It provides invaluable insights into how the Greeks viewed their past, underscoring the interplay of myth, legend, and history in shaping a civilization's identity.

The journey of the Parian Marble—from its discovery to its current homes in the Ashmolean Museum and the Archaeological Museum of Paros—is symbolic of the enduring allure of ancient Greece. Its tales continue to captivate, offering a window into an era where heroes walked the earth, gods meddled in mortal affairs, and history was as much about epic tales as it was about kings and wars.

Water Harvesting and Distribution Systems of the Minoan Civilization: An Ingenious Prelude to Modern Hydraulics

August 27, 2021

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Minoan civilization, thriving during the Bronze Age on the island of Crete, Greece, presents an exemplary case of advanced water management techniques that predate modern hydraulic systems by millennia. With their civilization peaking in the second millennium B.C., the Minoans developed sophisticated multistory complexes, often referred to as “palaces,” which served as hubs for the distribution of essential goods like olive oil, wine, and grains. These architectural marvels, featuring elements such as colonnaded courtyards, sliding doors, and external staircases, were constructed with monumental stone and reinforced with wood beams, showcasing not only the Minoans' architectural prowess but also their advanced understanding of structural integrity.

The genesis of systematic water management in ancient Greece can be traced back to Crete during the Early Minoan period (ca. 3500–2150 B.C.), marking the beginning of a legacy in hydraulic innovation. However, it was during the Neopalatial period (ca. 1700–1400 B.C.), particularly at the zenith of Knossos's splendor, that Minoan water technology reached its apogee. The city of Knossos and its palace, Minos, became the epicenter for an elaborate terracotta pipe water management system, evidencing the Minoans' intricate knowledge of water conveyance and distribution.

These terracotta pipes, a hallmark of Minoan engineering, were versatile conduits for stormwater collected from roofs, wastewater, and fresh water sourced from nearby springs and aqueducts. Their design facilitated the transportation of water to various critical points, including cistern systems, palatial complexes, sewage and drainage systems, and public water supply networks, such as fountains or communal gathering spots around springs, as observed in the town of Zakro. An intriguing instance from Myrtos-Pyrgos, west of Ierapetra, showcases a rectangular terracotta pipe channeling roof-collected stormwater into a nearby cistern system, illustrating the Minoans' pragmatic approach to rainwater harvesting.

The Minoan aqueducts, categorized into open/natural gravity flow systems and closed/pressured pipe systems, underscore their sophisticated understanding of hydraulic principles. Notable examples from Knossos, Tylissos, Phaistos, and several other locations reveal the extensive use of terracotta pipes, indicative of a closed system that exploited the hydraulic principle of communicating vessels. This principle, which posits that water seeks its own level, was ingeniously applied in the construction of these aqueducts, suggesting that Minoan craftsmen possessed a profound knowledge of several hydraulic principles, including the siphon effect and the concept of communicating vessels. The aqueduct that supplies the spring at Gypsades is an example of this because it cleverly used a bridge with an estimated 5% inclination rate to facilitate water movement in accordance with these principles.

Despite the advanced nature of these systems, it is crucial to acknowledge their limitations in terms of the volume of water they could carry, necessitating the auxiliary use of cypress pipes, a resource plentiful in the region. This adaptability to material and method reflects the Minoans' pragmatic approach to engineering challenges, a characteristic that underscores their legacy in the annals of ancient water management.

The scholarly work of Angelakis et al. (2013), along with contributions from De Feo, Koutsoyiannis, and others, offers a comprehensive insight into the Minoan and, more broadly, ancient hydro-technologies, underlining the significance of these early innovations in the context of global water management history. The Minoans' achievements in hydraulic engineering not only catered to their contemporary needs but also laid the groundwork for subsequent civilizations to build upon, illustrating the timeless relevance of their technological foresight and ingenuity.

In essence, the water harvesting and distribution systems of the Minoan civilization epitomize the zenith of Bronze Age hydraulic technology. Their innovative approaches to water management, characterized by sophisticated aqueducts and versatile piping systems, not only facilitated the prosperity of their society but also contributed to the rich tapestry of human ingenuity in harnessing natural resources. As we continue to navigate the challenges of sustainable water management in the modern era, the legacy of the Minoans serves as a testament to the enduring power of innovation and the pivotal role of water in the advancement of civilization.

Persephone guides the visitors inside ‘Alistrati cave’, 84 miles northeast of Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece.

'Persephone': A Unique Guide-Robot that leads Visitors in a Greek Cave in Macedonia

August 23, 2021

Persephone is a tour guide in Greece, but perhaps not the type people are used to.

Billed as the world’s first robot tour guide inside a cave, Persephone has been welcoming visitors since mid-July to the Alistrati Cave in northern Greece, 84 miles northeast of the city of Thessaloniki.

The multilingual robot covers the first roughly 500 feet of the part of the cave that is open to the public. In the remaining 2,400 feet, a human guide takes over.

The robot was named Persephone because, according to one version of the ancient Greek myth, it was in a nearby plain that Pluto — the god of the underworld who was also known as Hades — abducted Persephone, with the consent of her father Zeus, to take her as his wife.

The robot can give its part of the tour in 33 languages and interact at a basic level with visitors in three languages. It can also answer 33 questions, but only in Greek. Visitors will also be able to hear the myth of Persephone's abduction in Ancient Greek!

Nikos Kartalis, the scientific director for the Alistrati site, had the idea of creating the robot when he saw one on TV guiding visitors at an art gallery. Seventeen years later, “we got our funds and the robot guide became a reality,” Kartalis told The Associated Press.

The robot was built by the National Technology and Research Foundation and cost $139,000.

“We already have a 70% increase in visitors compared to last year since we started using” the robot, says Kartalis. “People are enthusiastic, especially the children, and people who had visited in the past are coming back to see the robot guide.”

“It is something unprecedented for them, to have the ability to interact with their robot by asking it questions and the robot answering them,” he said. “Many foreign visitors couldn’t believe Greece had the capacity to build a robot and use it as a guide in the cave.”

The robot moves along a walkway, passing through an ornate landscape of stalactites and stalagmites. These varied formations can reach 50 feet tall and are seen throughout the cave’s nearly 1.6-mile walkway, which is accessible to people with limited mobility.

“This cave is one of the most beautiful, not only in Greece but in Europe, as well,” says Kartalis. “It has stalactites and stalagmites in many shapes and colors, even red.”

He said the cave was 3 million years old and was first explored in 1974 by the Hellenic Speleological Society and a team of Austrian speleologists. It opened to visitors in 1998.

Persephone, with a white body, black head and two luminous eyes, moves on wheels, guiding visitors to the first three of eight stops along the walkway. She can do two more stops, but her low speed slows down the tour, which is conducted in three languages simultaneously. Persephone’s creators are considering ways to speed her up.

The robot’s begins by saying: “My name is Persephone, I am the daughter of the goddess Demeter and the wife of Pluto, the god of the underworld. I welcome you to my under Earth kingdom, the Alistrati Cave.”

Many visitors are intrigued by the robot guide.

“It was surprising for me. I’ve never experienced such a thing. Actually, honestly, I prefer a live guide, but it’s interesting doing it this way. And I like the pace of the robot. It goes slower, so I can look around,” said Patrick Markes, a Czech visitor.

Markes listened to the first three stops from the robοt in his native language and the rest in English from a human tour guide.

“I should thank Persephone, our robot, she said very fine things,” said Christos Tenis, a Greek visitor. “I’m impressed by the cave. Of course, we had a flawless (human) guide, she explained many things. I’m very impressed.”

Persephone is not the only technology used inside the cave. There’s a cellphone app in which a visitor, scanning a QR code, can see the Alistrati Beroni. That’s a microorganism that is only found in this cave, in the huge mounds of bat droppings left behind when the cave was opened and the bats migrated elsewhere.

Evdokia Karafera is one of the tour guides who partners with the robot.

“It is helpful, because it speaks many languages. There’s just a little delay in the touring,” she said. “Most find it fascinating, especially the children, and find it interesting that it speaks many languages.”

Karafera insisted, however, that human tour guides cannot be completely replaced.

“Robots, at some point in the future, will take over many jobs. But I believe they cannot replace humans everywhere,” she said. “(Visitors say) ‘the robot is interesting, original, but can’t substitute for the human contact with the guide and the conversation we can have on the way back.’”

Source: Associated Press

Pottery Shard May Show Missing Link to First Written Alphabet

June 4, 2021

By Patricia Claus

Early writing found on a 3,500-year-old pottery shard in Israel may represent the “missing link” in the development of the first alphabet, according to researchers who published their findings recently in Smithsonian magazine.

The inscription, which has been under study since it was first unearthed in 2018, makes researchers think that it means that a standardized script — essential in any true alphabet — arrived in Canaan earlier than previously thought.

The letters used resemble Egyptian hieroglyphs – but they are not true hieroglyphs.

The letters are now believed to be the very oldest writing ever recorded in the ancient land of Israel, forming the basis of writing systems that developed later in time.

*Pottery shard showing early alphabetic language, found at Tel Lachish, Israel. Credit: Austrian Archaeological Institute of the Austrian Academy of Sciences*

A report from the Jerusalem Post states that archaeologists unearthed the fragment as part of excavations that were undertaken at Tel Lachish in south-central Israel in 2018. The Tel Lachish archaeological site was once home to a large Canaanite city.

They were able to date the pottery shard using radiocarbon dating of grains of barley found alongside it, pinpointing its origin back to 1450 B.C., when the area was a center of Canaanite society. The archaeologists published their findings in the journal Antiquity.

Only six letters on two lines, the writing was inscribed millennia ago on the soft surface of a clay pot. Haggai Misgav, an epigraphist at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, who was a co-author of the study, told interviewers from Haaretz, she believes that the first three letters spell out the word “ebed,” meaning “slave” or “servant.”

Oddly, the inscription was most likely part of a person’s name. According to archaeologists, a popular naming convention in ancient times combined “servant” with the name of a local god to show the person’s devotion to that deity.

The second line on the shard is believed to be the word “nophet,” meaning “nectar” or “honey.”

Tel Lachish front gate in Israel. Tel Lachish may be the area where the first written alphabet may have developed. Credit: Wilson44691 / CC BY-SA 3.0 — *Tel Lachish front gate in Israel. Tel Lachish may be the area where the first written alphabet may have developed. Credit:* *Wilson44691* / *CC BY-SA 3.0*

Missing link may connect Egyptian alphabetic inscriptions to later Canaanite writing

Because the text is short and incomplete, researchers have not yet definitively determined what the inscription says for certain. At this time it is also unknown whether the writing was meant to be read from left to right or right to left.

The researchers believe that the script represents a “missing link” connecting alphabetic inscriptions already discovered in Egypt and the Sinai peninsula with later writing originating from Canaan.

The writing uses an early version of the alphabet in which letters resemble the Egyptian hieroglyphs from which they evolved.

The new discovery appears to disprove a previous hypothesis which held that the alphabet only came to Canaan after Egypt came to rule the area.

*Tel Lachish, Israel. Credit: Austrian Archaeological Institute of the Austrian Academy of Sciences)*

Lead author Felix Höflmayer, an archaeologist from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, told interviewers from the Jerusalem Post “In the Late Bronze Age, between 1550 and 1200 B.C., the region was under the Egyptian empire.

“The Egyptians imposed their administrative system and their own writing and many experts thought that the early alphabet might have been introduced in this context; but now we can see that it was already in use at least by the 15th century B.C., when there was not such a large-scale Egyptian domination.”

Because of its abundant water sources and fertile earth, early Canaanites flocked to the Tel Lachish area and a large city flourished there for much of ancient history, according to information from the Jewish Virtual Library.

The Canaanites established a fortified citadel there in approximately 2000 B.C. After a fire destroyed the city sometime around the end of the 12th century B.C., the area was rebuilt as an Israelite fortress-city which was part of the Kingdom of Judah.

Unfortunately, Tel Lachish was destroyed once again in an Assyrian attack in the year 701 B.C. Well-known to have been an important site since time immemorial, archaeologists have been digging there since the 1930s.

Benjamin Sass, an archaeologist at Tel Aviv University who was not involved in the excavation and subsequent study of the shard, told interviewers that dating the barley discovered alongside the pottery fragment may not have pointed to an accurate date for the inscription itself, since the grain might have been harvested after the vessel was created.

“The data published so far makes (the team’s timeline) a possibility, but by no means a certainty,” he notes in an article in Live Science.

Researchers already know for certain that the writing used by Canaanites eventually split into the alphabet that ancient Israelites employed to write the Hebrew Bible and another version of an alphabet used by Phoenicians.

After the collapse of the Bronze Age, around 1200 BC, alphabetic writing advanced and developed further, since the major powers around the Mediterranean collapsed, spurring small city-states to use their own, local languages more and more.

According to Lydia Wilson, who had written on the development of early languages in an earlier article in Smithsonian, variations of the alphabet that was used in Canaan therefore spread from what is now Turkey all the way to Spain — eventually going birth to the Latin alphabet used in western languages today.

Höflmayer told the Jerusalem Post “All alphabets have somewhat evolved from hieroglyphs, the Phoenician one, the Hebrew one, the Greek one, the Latin one and so on.

“Now we know that the alphabet was not brought to the Levant by Egyptian rule. Although we cannot really explain yet how it happened, we can say that it was much earlier and under different social circumstances.”

The Unknown Achaean-Hittite Conflicts in Late Bronze Age!

May 10, 2021

Research on hittite inscriptions found in many prehistoric sites of the Hittite Empire (Bronze Age) shed light on a historical subject that is largely unknown to us, the military operations of Mycenaean (Achaean) Greeks on the coast of Anatolia (M Asia).

It seems that the so-called "Trojan War" known to us from the Homeric Epics is just an episode of a long war and an extensive dispute over the control of the Ionian coast between Achaeans, Hittites and many intermediate independent kingdoms.

Watch the interesting video of Wanax TV, as well as the other interesting subjects of the channel here.

Knossos, Island of Crete, Royal Palace, Queen’s Room, 1450 BC – Archaeology Illustrated

New Study Reveals Close Genetic Links Across Advanced Aegean Civilizations

May 8, 2021

Unveiling Shared Ancestral Roots: Genetic Insights into the Aegean Civilizations

In the realm of archaeology and genetics, the intricate tapestry of the past continues to unravel, revealing fascinating insights into the origins and interconnectedness of ancient civilizations. A recent groundbreaking study conducted by a collaborative team of researchers from Greece and Switzerland has shed new light on the genetic ties that bind the advanced Aegean civilizations of the Early Bronze Age. This study challenges long-standing assumptions and reshapes our understanding of the Minoan, Cycladic, and Helladic civilizations, raising intriguing questions about their shared heritage.

The findings of this study were introduced in an article entitled “ The Genomic History of the Aegean Palatial Civilizations ,” which was published on April 29 in the peer-reviewed journal Cell.

The focal point of this study was a genetic analysis of DNA samples extracted from the skeletal remains of 17 individuals unearthed at various archaeological sites across the Aegean region. These individuals, who lived approximately 5,000 years ago during the Early Bronze Age, belonged to the Minoan civilization of Crete, the Cycladic civilization on the Cyclades islands, and the Helladic civilization on the Greek mainland.

Previous beliefs suggested that these civilizations, despite their geographical proximity, were distinct and created by genetically diverse populations. However, the genetic analysis conducted in this study has challenged this assumption by revealing striking genetic similarities among the ancient Aegean populations. This revelation suggests that these civilizations may not have been as isolated from one another as once thought, instead tracing their origins back to common ancestors.

Common Ancestry and Shared Culture

The Minoan, Cycladic, and Helladic civilizations are renowned for their grand urban centers, intricate monuments, adept metalwork, and expansive trade networks. While the past belief held that these shared traits were a result of mass migrations from Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) introducing concepts and innovations to each civilization, the genetic analysis offers an alternative perspective.

The study contends that these civilizations shared a common culture that dates back to antiquity rather than being solely the result of outside migrations. As time passed, they diversified, which explains the variations in their art and architectural practices. However, the essential characteristics they held in common, such as their urban development and metalworking skills, emerged from their shared cultural heritage.

View to the so called “ Triangle Square” with the Westhouse (left) and the Delta West Complex (right). (© 7reasons, Michael Klein)

Migration's Role in Cultural Development

It is essential to acknowledge that migration still plays a role in shaping the cultural landscape of the Aegean region. However, this study underscores that migration was not the sole driving force behind these civilizations' development. The Early Bronze Age societies inherited many of their social, economic, and political attributes from their common ancestors, creating a continuous cultural unity that persisted throughout their evolution.

Genetic Divergence in the Middle Bronze Age

While most of the genetic samples analyzed originated from the Early Bronze Age, two samples were retrieved from Middle Bronze Age sites, providing a fascinating glimpse into later developments. By this period, around 4,600 to 4,000 years ago, contact had significantly increased between the northern Aegean and herders migrating from the Pontic-Caspian steppe.

The Middle Bronze Age samples displayed a genetic makeup that combined Helladic and Pontic-Caspian elements, distinguishing them from their Early Bronze Age predecessors. The Pontic-Caspian steppe, known for its nomadic peoples, had a profound impact on the cultures it encountered, potentially influencing the origins of modern Greek and Indo-European languages.

A Glimpse into the Past

This pioneering study has opened new avenues for prehistorical research by reconstructing ancestral relationships between ancient populations and identifying the timing of migration events in the Aegean region's cultural transition from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age Aegean civilizations laid the foundations for subsequent urban centers and monumental palaces, leaving a lasting legacy that resonates through the annals of history.

In the ever-evolving narrative of our past, genetic studies like this one continue to reveal the shared origins and interconnectedness of ancient civilizations. The Minoan, Cycladic, and Helladic civilizations, once considered distinct, are now understood to have shared a common heritage that shaped their remarkable achievements. As we delve deeper into the genetic tapestry of our history, we simultaneously gain a better understanding of our own roots and the echoes of these ancient civilizations in our modern world.

But the latest genetic analysis suggests an alternative explanation. If the Aegean civilizations were more closely related than previously thought, it means they would have shared a common culture reaching far back into antiquity. They became more diverse as time passed, which would explain the differences between their preferred forms of art and architecture. But their divergence wouldn’t have been complete, meaning the characteristics they had in common (like their city building and metalworking practices) would have emerged from their shared cultural heritage.

It is important to emphasize that migration would have still been a factor that helped shape cultural development in the region. However, it would not have been the sole factor at work. The peoples of the Early Bronze Age Minoan , Cycladic, and Helladic civilizations would have inherited many of their social, economic, and political attributes from their common ancestors, creating a continuous cultural unity.

Neolithic Cat Burial in Cyprus: The oldest known evidence of taming of cats!

April 10, 2021

The bones of a cat were found near human bones in a grave uncovered in Cyprus, dating from 7,500 to 7,000 years B.C., during excavations carried out under the supervision of Jean Guilaine of the Collège de France. Jean-Denis Vigne, CNRS research director, showed that this was the oldest known evidence of the taming of cats.

It is generally taken for granted that cat domestication began in Egypt, with the first clear evidence dating from 2,000 years B.C. French researchers writing in Science magazine show that the process actually began much earlier than that. The evidence comes from the Neolithic, or late stone age, village of Shillourokambos on Cyprus, which was inhabited from the 9th to the 8th millennia BC.

The cat is buried together with its "master", 3D reconstruction of the Early Aceramic Neolithic grave of Shillourokambos. — The cat is buried together with its "master", 3D reconstruction of the Early Aceramic Neolithic grave of ***Shillourokambos***.

At the end of the 1980’s, the discovery of the jawbone of a cat on the island of Cyprus, at Khirokitia, in sediment from the Neolithic Age dating from more than 6,000 years B.C., had already suggested that the domestication of this species could have begun earlier and elsewhere than in Egypt. The distance of the island of Cyprus from the continent and the absence of a local feline species during the Neolithic Age clearly implied that Neolithic populations had voluntarily introduced the animal to the island.

Digs at the site of Shillourokambos, led by Jean Guilaine under the direction of the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus and the French School of Athens, have recently unearthed a burial site in which a cat and a human are associated. It dates from 7,500 to 7,000 B.C. Not only is it older by almost one thousand years than the first evidence of the presence of the cat in Cyprus, but it leaves no doubt as to the existence of a strong association between humans and cats as of that time, at least at the symbolic level. The cat buried with the human was approximately eight months old and had almost reached its adult size. The morphology of the skeleton suggests that it was a big cat, similar to wild cats found in the Near East today. The morphological modifications of the skeleton associated with domestication are not yet visible, justifying the use of the term “tamed”, rather than “domesticated”.

“This particular relationship between humans and cats could have begun at the very beginning of agriculture, when cats were attracted into the villages because mice came to eat the stored grain”, explains Jean-Denis Vigne.

The complete body of the animal was buried in a small pit at about twenty centimeters from the human grave. The tomb, particularly rich in offerings in comparison to other graves known from this period in Cyprus, suggests that the individual had a special social status. Τhis grave certainly bears witness to relationships between humans and cats in the 8th millennium B.C., not restricted to the material benefit of humans but also involved in spiritual links.

Domestication and taming

Archaeozoologists generally use the word domestication when they have good evidence for morphological modifications such as the decrease of the general size or the shortening of the face and tooth raw. However, morphological modifications may not appear for some considerable time after the original association with man. We use the term ‘taming’ for the early history of the domestic cat when no morphological modification is visible. In addition this term, which has also been used by Malek for the same stage of domestication, fits well the status of cat as an ‘exploiting captive’. Cultural situation of Shillourokambos. The cultural characters of the late 9th millennium Shillourokambos archaeological assemblages are very similar to those of the mainland for the same period. Indeed, it has now been established that Cyprus was settled by Neolithic farmers from the continent who brought with them both crops and herds.

Brief description of the human burial

The sub-circular (55 x 60 cm) grave was situated in the upper part of the archaeological deposits, just under the 25/30 cm thick arable ploughed earth. It had been dug into the remains of a mud building which dates to the middle phase of the occupation of Shillourokambos. It contained the complete skeleton in primary position of a human of 30 years of age or older; the body, which had partly collapsed during decomposition, had probably been buried in a bag, in a semi-sitting position, facing West; the arms were crossed against the chest and his legs completely folded. The list of the ten ceremonial items is as follows: a marine shell, a stone pendant, a very uncommon discoid flint scraper, two small polished axes (one of them broken), a pumice stone, a fragment of ochre, a large flint piercing tool, and several non-retouched flint blades and bladelets. This is the only burial with such a high number of offerings for the whole Preceramic and Aceramic Neolithic in Cyprus.

Description of the cat grave and skeleton

The grave was oval (43 x 25 cm) and ca. 15cm deep. It was dug into and filled with the same archaeological layer as the human burial, at the same level and 20 cm away from its southeastern edge. A small asymmetric mound of sediment all along the North edge of the grave was probably composed of the packed down-products of the excavation of the grave, attesting man-made excavation. The cat skeleton was complete, except the last lumbar vertebra, sacrum, pelvis, possible baculum, tail bones and a few elements of the limb extremities. The missing parts were all situated at the highest level, suggesting that the complete body had been buried and that the uppermost parts were destroyed by ploughing; the skeleton laid on its left side, the head to the West and the back to the South, i.e., in the same orientation as that of the human skeleton; the head was bent backwards in relation to the neck; fore and rear limbs were grouped under the stomach, respectively backwards and forwards stretched, but the removal of the limb extremities precludes any explanation to this peculiar arrangement. The finds have been withdrawn as a block, for laboratory excavation and casting. The entire skeleton was articulated, a small amount of movement to the anatomical arrangement being due to collapse during the decomposition process. There is no indication about the origin of the death. Microscopic examination did not reveal any cut or burn marks. The absence of significant quantities of sediments between the right and left rib series indicates that the thoracic cavity had not been opened before the burial.

Though severely damaged, the skull was sufficiently well preserved to allow a good determination of the species among the different small felids of Western Asia, according to the morphological criteria which allow clear-cut distinctions between them. Lengths of the limbs long bones are much larger than the ones of historical and present-day domestic cats

(Source: “Early taming of the cat in Cyprus”, by J.-D. Vigne, J. Guilaine, K. Debue, L. Haye & P. Gérard)

3D reconstruction of Shillourokambos site. — 3D reconstruction of ***Shillourokambos*** site.