The Perfection of the Number 7: Why the Ancient Greeks Considered It “Magical”

The number 7 has held a special place in human history for millennia—and nowhere more so than in Ancient Greece. Revered as a symbol of mystery and perfection, it appears time and again in mythology, science, philosophy, and religion. Let’s explore why the number 7 captivated the minds of the ancient Greeks and continues to fascinate us today.

7 in the Ancient World

• The Seven Wonders of the World: Of the original seven wonders, four were located in ancient Greek territories, while the remaining three stood beyond. The choice wasn’t random—the numbers 3 and 4 also held deep symbolic meaning, representing harmony and balance. Together, they form 7, a number seen as complete and powerful.

• The Seven Seas: According to the Greeks, the world’s waters were divided into seven seas: the Aegean, Mediterranean, Adriatic, Black, Red, Caspian, and the Persian Gulf.

• A Perfect Number: For the Pythagoreans, 7 was perfect—a sum of 3 (the triangle, symbol of spirit) and 4 (the square, symbol of matter). They believed it united heaven and earth.

• Geometric Mystery: Geometrically, 7 was fascinating. For instance, placing 7 points in a circle doesn’t produce a symmetrical shape—highlighting its inherent enigma.

Symbolism in Myth and Literature

• Seven Against Thebes: Aeschylus’s famous tragedy tells of seven Greek kings who marched against the city of Thebes, itself said to have seven gates.

• Mythological References:

  • Apollo’s lyre had 7 strings.

  • Odysseus was stranded on Calypso’s island for 7 years.

  • The Pleiades—7 daughters of Atlas—were immortalized in the star cluster of the same name.

• Homer’s Apollo: The god was said to have herded 7 flocks of cattle.

The Number 7 in Ancient Life

• Education in Sparta: Spartan boys began their rigorous training at age 7.

• Metals of Civilization: The ancient world recognized 7 key metals: gold, copper, lead, tin, mercury, silver, and iron—foundations of early technological progress.

• Known Planets: The 7 celestial bodies known to ancient astronomers were Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Sun, and the Moon.

• Anatomy: Greeks divided the human body into 7 major parts—head, chest, abdomen, two arms, and two legs.

7 Across Cultures and Religions

• Christianity: The number appears frequently—7 virtues (compassion, humility, purity, brotherly love, gentleness, kindness, diligence), and 7 pairs of birds saved by Noah.

• Islam: According to some interpretations, men are permitted to have up to 7 wives.

• The Bible: The number 7 is mentioned over 70 times in the Old Testament. The 7th day of creation is the day of rest—symbolizing completion.

• Vatican City: It became an independent state on 7/7/1929.

• Buddhism and Eastern Beliefs:

  • Traditional Chinese philosophy identifies 7 fundamental elements: air, water, metal, ether, fire, wood, and earth.

  • In Chinese folklore, the 7th day of the lunar new year is celebrated as the "birthday of humanity."

• Body and Energy: Many spiritual systems, including yoga, recognize 7 chakras or energy centers aligned along the spine.

• Jewelry and Adornment: Across many cultures, 7 parts of the body are traditionally adorned: head, neck, hands, feet, ears, nose, and waist.

In Nature and Beyond

• The Moon: Each lunar phase lasts approximately 7 days.

• The Rainbow: It consists of 7 colors—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

• Music and Language:

  • Byzantine music features 7 distinct notes: PA, VOU, GA, DE, KE, ZO, NI.

  • The mind can instantly recognize and count up to 7 items at a glance—an idea supported by modern psychology.

• Geography:

  • The Ionian Islands are traditionally counted as 7: Corfu, Kefalonia, Zakynthos, Ithaca, Lefkada, Kythira, and Paxos.

  • Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) has been known by 7 different names, including Byzantium, New Rome, and Istanbul.

In Modern Times

The enduring symbolism of the number 7 even finds its place in modern culture, from the 7-book Harry Potter series to spiritual practices and scientific theories. Its presence from ancient civilization through to the present day reflects its powerful, mysterious, and universal appeal.

So, what makes the number 7 so special?
Whether in myth, science, religion, or culture, 7 continues to represent perfection, mystery, and completeness—a truly timeless number woven into the fabric of human understanding.

Coming Soon: The World’s First Handbag Made from T-Rex Leather

A new era of luxury fashion is on the horizon—one that dates back millions of years. A groundbreaking collaboration between creative agency VML, biotech pioneers The Organoid Company, and sustainable materials firm Lab-Grown Leather is set to produce the world’s first handbag made from Tyrannosaurus rex leather, created using reconstructed DNA from the extinct predator.

The T-Rex, a towering apex predator of the prehistoric world, is now at the heart of a futuristic material revolution. This ambitious project aims to produce a high-end, cruelty-free, and environmentally responsible alternative to traditional leather, with the first product expected to launch by the end of the year.

“This is a powerful example of what’s possible at the intersection of genome science and material innovation,” said Thomas Mitchell, CEO of The Organoid Company. “By reconstructing ancient protein sequences, we’re able to design and grow a biofabricated leather inspired by the T-Rex.”

How It Works: Turning Ancient DNA into Leather

At the core of the project is collagen—a protein found in bones, skin, and connective tissue. While scientists once believed DNA couldn’t survive for millions of years, recent discoveries have unearthed preserved collagen in dinosaur fossils, including one from an 80-million-year-old T-Rex.

Using this preserved collagen as a blueprint, researchers have recreated the complete collagen sequence of the T-Rex. This sequence is encoded into DNA and inserted into lab-grown cells developed by Lab-Grown Leather. These cells then grow into a collagen-rich tissue mimicking animal skin—without the need for an actual animal.

What makes this method stand out is its “scaffold-free” approach. Unlike other biotech firms that rely on support structures to shape their materials, Lab-Grown Leather’s cells are encouraged to grow and organize independently, resulting in a more natural leather-like texture.

Sustainable, Luxurious, and Biodegradable

If successful, this bioengineered leather could change the way we think about luxury materials. T-Rex leather is expected to be strong, self-repairing, biodegradable, and possess the rich texture and durability associated with premium leather goods.

Its environmental credentials are equally compelling. Traditional leather production is often linked to deforestation, excessive water use, and toxic chemicals. In contrast, lab-grown T-Rex leather eliminates animal cruelty and dramatically reduces the environmental footprint.

VML plans to debut the T-Rex leather in a flagship accessory item, set to launch in late 2025. Future applications could include furniture, fashion, and even automotive interiors.

This isn’t the first time VML has dabbled in ancient biotech. In 2023, the agency made headlines with its Mammoth Meatball project, using DNA from the extinct woolly mammoth to create lab-grown meat.

“With T-Rex leather, we’re blending ancient biology with modern innovation,” said Bas Korsten, VML’s Global Chief Creative Officer. “It’s about reimagining the materials of the future using the wonders of the past.”

2,000-Year-Old Ancient Computer That “Shouldn’t Exist” Once Deemed Impossible

A device so advanced it was once considered impossible for its era has puzzled scientists for more than a century.

The Antikythera Mechanism, often described as the world’s first computer, is a 2,000-year-old astronomical calculator that has reshaped our understanding of ancient technology. Discovered in 1901 among the wreckage of a ship off the coast of Greece, this intricate mechanism was centuries ahead of its time, prompting serious questions about the capabilities of ancient Greek engineers.

Crafted from bronze and containing a complex system of interlocking gears, the Antikythera Mechanism was built to track celestial movements and predict astronomical events such as eclipses and planetary alignments.

The sheer precision of its design reveals an advanced knowledge of mathematics and mechanics—levels of sophistication once thought to be far beyond the reach of early civilizations.

As described in a video by Fern (around the 10:35 mark), the mechanism is a “complex simulation of the cosmos.” It could, for any given day, show “where the world stood, which constellation was rising, or when the next eclipse would occur”—all contained within a wooden case no larger than a book.

For decades, experts struggled to decipher how the device worked. With only about one-third of the original mechanism surviving, much of its inner workings remained a mystery. Earlier studies managed to interpret the back panel, which included inscriptions explaining the device’s purpose, but the elaborate front gear system continued to baffle scientists.

That changed in 2021, when researchers at University College London (UCL) made a major breakthrough. Using advanced 3D modeling techniques, they successfully reconstructed the front panel of the mechanism. Their model revealed a sophisticated display capable of mapping the movements of the Sun, Moon, and the five known planets of the time.

Published in Scientific Reports, the study showed the most accurate reconstruction of the device to date, closely aligning with inscriptions found on the original artifact.

Lead researcher Professor Tony Freeth described the mechanism as a “tour de force of ancient Greek brilliance,” noting that the model is the first to fully match the surviving physical evidence. The team now plans to build a full-scale replica using modern materials to further explore how it operated.

Today, the remains of the Antikythera Mechanism are housed at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, where it continues to fascinate visitors and scholars alike.

What makes the device so extraordinary is how far ahead of its time it appears. Nothing approaching its mechanical complexity would appear again until the invention of clockwork mechanisms in the Middle Ages—more than a thousand years later. This has led to speculation that the knowledge behind its creation may have been lost, or that other similarly advanced devices are still waiting to be discovered.

Ultimately, the Antikythera Mechanism has changed how we view ancient civilizations. It offers striking evidence that some individuals in the ancient world were far more technologically advanced than previously assumed. As researchers continue to uncover its secrets, this astonishing artifact serves as a powerful reminder: history still holds many surprises.

The Great Solar Storm of 5259 BC Solves Mystery of an Ancient Greek Settlement — The Trees “Spoke”

Researchers from the University of Bern have achieved a groundbreaking feat by precisely dating a prehistoric agricultural settlement in Northern Greece, believed to be over 7,000 years old.

By combining annual tree-ring growth data from wooden construction elements with a sudden spike in cosmogenic radiocarbon dated to 5259 BC, they have established a reliable chronological benchmark for numerous archaeological sites across Southeastern Europe.

Why Dating Archaeological Finds Matters

Accurately dating archaeological discoveries is crucial to understanding the timelines of human history. Only in recent decades has it become possible to determine the age of a tomb, settlement, or specific artifact thanks to two primary methods: dendrochronology (tree-ring dating) and radiocarbon dating.

Until now, the prehistoric settlement of Dispilio in Northern Greece had not been precisely dated. But researchers have now placed its human activity between 5328 and 5140 BC. Their results, published in Nature Communications, rely on high-energy particles from space — particularly from a known cosmic event in 5259 BC — to provide an absolute chronological anchor.

Tree-Ring Dating, Radiocarbon Dating — and the Problem They Faced

Dendrochronology is based on distinct patterns of wide and narrow annual rings in wood, which reflect climatic conditions. By comparing these patterns with established regional chronologies, researchers can estimate an object’s age. However, this method isn’t universally applicable — especially in the Mediterranean, where a consistent chronological sequence is lacking.

As a result, tree-ring chronologies in this region are considered “floating” and must be linked to radiocarbon dating. Trees absorb Carbon-14 (14C) from the atmosphere during their life through photosynthesis. When a tree dies, it stops absorbing 14C, which then begins to decay at a known rate (half-life of 5,730 years).

By measuring the remaining 14C in a specific ring, scientists can estimate the year of the tree’s death — but only within a margin of several decades. That’s where the challenge lay.

A Breakthrough: The Miyake Events

In 2012, Japanese physicist Fusa Miyake discovered a potential solution. A massive burst of cosmic rays, likely caused by solar flares, can trigger a sharp spike in atmospheric 14C, which becomes embedded in the tree rings of that specific year.

These spikes — now called Miyake Events — can be dated precisely and serve as global chronological anchors. Around a dozen such events are now known, with two major ones in 5259 BC and 7176 BC, the latter discovered in 2022 by researchers from ETH Zurich.

The team from the EXPLO project at the University of Bern constructed a 303-year-long tree-ring chronology ending in 5140 BC by analyzing 787 wood samples from the Dispilio archaeological site on Lake Orestiada (modern-day Lake Kastoria).

The settlement phases identified reveal construction activities spanning 188 years, from 5328 to 5140 BC — made possible by the anchoring provided by the Miyake Event of 5259 BC.

When the Trees Confirmed the Timeline

Researchers at ETH Zurich detected a significant radiocarbon spike during this period by dating several individual tree rings. This same spike was found in the Dispilio wood sequence, matching the global 5259 BC anchor point.

Thanks to this match, the Balkans have become the first region to benefit from this new chronological standard, allowing for absolute dating without relying on a continuous calendar.

"The Dispilio Chronology"

Andrej Maczkowski, lead researcher, hopes that more regional chronologies from the same period will soon be aligned with the “Dispilio Chronology,” opening the door to developing a regional tree-ring record for the southern Balkans.

This region, home to Europe’s oldest lakeside settlements, dating back to just after 6000 BC, played a pivotal role in the spread of agriculture across the continent.

NASA Discovery May Reveal the Exact Date of Jesus’ Crucifixion – With a Lunar Eclipse Connection

A surprising discovery from NASA may have pinpointed the precise date on which Jesus Christ was crucified — and it all comes down to a lunar eclipse.

Whether or not you believe in the historical accuracy of the Bible, there’s no denying that certain events described in religious texts have fascinating real-world parallels. From the mysterious Shroud of Turin — believed by some to be the burial cloth of Jesus — to geological theories supporting the biblical flood of Noah, science continues to intersect with faith in unexpected ways.

Now, a new chapter in that intersection may be unfolding.

A Date Long Believed — Now Scientifically Backed?

NASA has revealed the exact date Jesus died (Miguel J. Rodriguez Carrillo / Stringer / Getty)

For centuries, Christian tradition has held that Jesus died on Good Friday, specifically on April 3, 33 AD, around 3:00 PM, just hours before the start of the Jewish Passover and the Sabbath.

What’s remarkable is that this date, long accepted by biblical scholars, is now supported by NASA's astronomical data.

According to records from the U.S. space agency, a lunar eclipse occurred on Friday, April 3, 33 AD — aligning perfectly with biblical descriptions of the sky darkening during Jesus’ crucifixion.

“Darkness Over the Land”

The link comes from Matthew 27:45, which says:

“From noon until three in the afternoon, darkness came over all the land.”

While many have interpreted this passage metaphorically or as a divine event, some scholars and scientists suggest it may have referred to a natural phenomenon — such as a lunar eclipse, during which the moon takes on a blood-red hue.

In fact, NASA noted in the 1990s that early Christian texts mention the Moon turning to blood after Jesus’s death, which fits the description of a total lunar eclipse.

Backed by Biblical Scholars

Oxford University researchers Colin Humphreys and W. Graeme Waddington also explored this connection. They cited Joel’s prophecy in the Old Testament:

“The sun shall be turned to darkness, and the moon to blood, before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes.”

This passage has often been linked to the crucifixion event and now appears to align with historical astronomical data.

Using a combination of biblical references, the Jewish calendar, and lunar cycle reconstructions, the team was able to trace the eclipse to April 3, 33 AD — lending further weight to the longstanding theory about the timing of Jesus’ death.

What NASA’s Website Says

A section of NASA’s own site on historical eclipses notes:

“Christian texts mention that the Moon turned to blood after Jesus’s crucifixion – potentially referring to a lunar eclipse… Using this textual source, scholars narrowed down a possible date of crucifixion to Friday, April 3, 33 C.E. because a lunar eclipse occurred that day.”

So while the mystery of Jesus’ life and death still inspires debate, science has now added a new layer to the conversation — one that grounds a pivotal biblical moment in a cosmic event visible from Earth nearly 2,000 years ago.

Whether coincidence or confirmation, it’s a remarkable overlap between faith and science.

Scientists Finally Solve the Chilling Mystery of Why the Mayans Disappeared After Thousands of Years

The ancient Maya civilization has long captivated researchers and the public alike — known for its sophisticated hieroglyphic writing, advanced agricultural techniques, and of course, the famous calendar that sparked 2012 apocalypse theories.

At their peak around A.D. 250, the Maya thrived across Central America. They built bustling cities, towering temples, and ornate palaces. But by around A.D. 900, something dramatic had changed: nearly all of the major Maya urban centers had been abandoned.

So, what happened?

The Maya Didn’t Vanish — But Their Cities Did

Anton Petrus / Getty

Before diving into theories of extinction, it’s important to clarify a common misconception: the Maya people didn’t disappear.

As Lisa Lucero, professor of anthropology and medieval studies at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, puts it:

“It was the Maya political system that collapsed, not [their] society.”

“The over 7 million Maya living today in Central America and beyond attest to this fact.”

Drought — And Something More

For years, scientists believed drought was the leading cause behind the Maya collapse. NASA researchers supported this theory, noting that decreased rainfall would have severely disrupted canoe-based trade — a vital part of the Maya economy.

“Less rain meant lower water levels, which meant fewer trade routes,” Lucero explained.

But while drought played a role, a deeper — and more troubling — reason has emerged.

A Man-Made Environmental Disaster

In his book Collapse, historian and author Jared Diamond argued that the Maya were ultimately victims of their own environmental mismanagement — a warning that feels particularly relevant today.

To fuel the construction of their massive monuments, the Maya cut down hundreds of thousands of trees. In fact, just one meter of building material required the burning of around 20 trees.

According to recent computer simulations, this deforestation had a devastating impact on the environment. Without tree cover, the land absorbed more solar radiation, reducing the ability of water to evaporate. This not only raised temperatures, but also led to 5–15% less rainfall over the course of a century.

The cascading effects were severe:

• Failed crops

• Widespread famine

• Collapse of trade routes

• Mass migration in search of food

All of this was made worse by internal conflict, disease, and social unrest.

Maya Culture Lives On

Despite the collapse of their ancient cities, the Maya people and culture are far from gone. Today, their descendants continue to live across Yucatán, Campeche, Chiapas, Quintana Roo, and Tabasco in Mexico, as well as throughout Central America.

Their traditions, language, and identity have survived — a testament to their resilience in the face of both environmental catastrophe and centuries of colonialism.

Biotech CEO Working to Revive the Woolly Mammoth and Dodo Pushes Back Against Jurassic Park Comparisons

A biotech entrepreneur is pursuing what many once thought impossible: bringing the woolly mammoth back to life. But while the idea may sound like it’s straight out of a Hollywood blockbuster, the man behind the project insists it’s no Jurassic Park.

Ben Lamm, founder and CEO of Colossal Biosciences, leads a pioneering effort to resurrect extinct species such as the woolly mammoth and the dodo bird.

And although the premise of reviving long-lost creatures has drawn inevitable comparisons to Steven Spielberg’s iconic 1993 film, Lamm isn’t buying into the narrative.

Speaking to UNILAD Tech, he said:

"Jurassic Park was a super entertaining, super interesting movie — but it wasn’t real.
People say, ‘Didn’t they see Jurassic Park?’ Yeah, I also saw Blade Runner, I saw Dune, I’ve seen a lot of other things that aren’t real."

Still, he acknowledges the impact the movie had on science education and public imagination:

“One of the great things about Jurassic Park was Mr. DNA — it taught kids and adults that DNA exists, that it’s made up of letters, and that we now have tools to edit and manipulate it. That inspired people.”

In fact, Lamm says, some of the scientists he collaborates with were first drawn to genetics because of that very film — not because they wanted to bring back dinosaurs, but because it sparked their curiosity and excitement about science.

From Mammoths to Mice

The biotech firm hope that the woolly mammoth will one day walk the Earth again (MARK GARLICK/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Getty Images)

Rather than resurrecting dinosaurs, Colossal Biosciences has focused its efforts on more recent extinct animals — starting with the woolly mammoth.

Lamm has previously stated that his team aims to have a living mammoth walking the Earth by late 2028. As part of that effort, they’ve recently engineered a significant milestone: the creation of a “woolly mouse.”

No, they didn’t just plug a mammoth gene into a mouse. Instead, the team isolated specific mammoth traits — like woolly hair and thicker fat layers — and introduced those traits into lab mice. The result? A genetically modified mouse with mammoth-like features.

These “woolly mice” serve a scientific purpose: helping researchers pinpoint the right gene combinations needed to eventually produce a living mammoth.

But Colossal isn’t stopping there. The company also has its sights set on reviving the dodo and the thylacine, also known as the Tasmanian tiger.

A Bigger Mission: Conservation

The team of scientists have created the 'woolly mouse' as part of their de-extinction project (Colossal Biosciences)

While the media spotlight often shines on de-extinction, Lamm emphasizes that Colossal’s mission goes far beyond reviving the past.

“Don’t get me wrong, the woolly mouse is pretty damn cute and mammoths are amazing,” Lamm said.
“But people mostly want to talk about de-extinction. The truth is, we’re doing more work in species conservation and preservation than in de-extinction.”

One example is the company’s research into elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) — a disease that kills 20% of elephants annually. Colossal is also working on efforts to help save the Northern White Rhino, and several other projects around the globe have already yielded promising conservation results.

According to Lamm, the stakes couldn’t be higher.

“We’re in an extinction crisis. We’re living through the sixth mass extinction, and it’s caused by humans,” he warned.
“We could lose up to 50% of the world’s biodiversity by 2050.”

That’s why Lamm believes the work his team is doing — whether it’s reviving extinct species or protecting endangered ones — is critical.

“We need to build new tools and technologies. We just want to be one small part of the solution.”

Scientists Believe Groundbreaking 5,000-Year-Old Discovery May Be the Real Noah’s Ark

A team of scientists in Turkey believe they’ve made a remarkable discovery that could provide compelling evidence for the historical basis of Noah’s Ark.

If you grew up attending primary school in the UK, chances are you sang the nursery rhyme about Noah’s Ark. But if, by some chance, you’re unfamiliar with one of the world’s oldest stories, here’s the gist: God commanded Noah to build a massive ark to save his family—and two of every kind of animal—before flooding the Earth.

For years, scientists have speculated that the Durupınar formation, a 538-foot-long geological structure in eastern Turkey, might be linked to this ancient tale. Located near the Turkish-Iranian border, the formation closely matches the dimensions of the ark as described in the Bible.

In a major breakthrough late last year, researchers managed to decipher an ancient Babylonian artifact housed at the British Museum. They believe the clay tablet is essentially a map—a record of how Christians believe the world was created. It includes a Mesopotamian poem referencing a man (possibly Noah) who preserved life aboard an ark that landed safely with his family.

Now, this latest development adds further weight to the theory. Scientists collected rock and soil samples from the Durupınar site and sent them to a lab in Istanbul. Analysis revealed traces of clay-like materials, marine deposits, and even remnants of sea creatures—including mollusks.

Noah's Ark painted in a Milan church (Getty Images/Robtoz)

If Noah really did manage to gather two of every species, then even the humble mollusks would have had their place aboard the ark. Though, to be fair, they were probably small enough to sneak on without anyone noticing.

Woman Left Terrified After Creepy Discovery in Her House Wall Reveals Disturbing Truth

A woman was left shaken after uncovering a chilling secret hidden in the walls of her 16th-century farmhouse—one that pointed to a dark, long-forgotten practice.

Emmie Brookman, 28, bought the historic three-bedroom home in 2023 with her fiancé and soon realized that it needed major renovation due to pink mold creeping through the walls.

After receiving a quote of over £17,000 (more than $22,000) from professionals to remove the house's outer render, the couple decided to do the work themselves—an effort that led to a startling discovery. While chipping away at the wall, Emmie found what appeared to be a bone lodged inside.

The couple purchased the UK property in February 2023 (SWNS)

Initially spooked by the eerie find, Emmie soon learned that placing bones within walls was a ritual once used to ward off evil spirits—a superstition dating back to the 1500s.

In total, the couple discovered four bones embedded in the exterior walls and two more inside the house. Emmie believes that while most are animal bones, one may be a human finger bone.

"We were taking off the old render near the front door when something fell out of the wall. It was obviously a bone," Emmie explained. "It really creeped me out. What do you even do when you find bones in your wall?"

At first, the couple feared they might uncover an entire body. Emmie, who co-owns a homeware business in Barrowford, Lancashire, had fallen in love with the property's “character and quirks” and purchased it in February 2023 for £311,000 ($417,000). She initially thought the place only needed some new carpets and a coat of paint. But it soon became clear the issues ran much deeper.

Emmie opted to remove the rendering herself after being quoted £17k by professionals (SWNS)

"There was pink mold growing on the walls, it smelled musty, and even our paperwork would get soggy," she said.

They later discovered that the house had been coated with the wrong kind of render, which was trapping moisture and damaging the old stone underneath. Renovations began in August 2024, and it wasn’t long before the bone discoveries started.

Among the strange items they unearthed was a small green bottle filled with ashes and herbs—another possible remnant of old folk practices.

"We read an article about old magical beliefs in Kendal," Emmie said. "People back then genuinely believed in witches. They’d hide bones and herbs in the walls to protect themselves from evil. That’s what they thought would keep them safe."

The couple have now found bones in nearly every room. “One flew out at me. I’m convinced one of them is a finger,” she added.

The young woman made a creepy discovery in the walls of her home (SWNS)

Rather than disposing of the bones, Emmie has decided to preserve their spooky history. Some will go on display, while others have been returned to the walls, as she sees them as part of the home’s story.

And as if the bones weren’t eerie enough, a little research into the property’s past revealed that a convicted murderer, James Hargreaves, once lived right next door. He had attacked his housekeeper and later shot a young legal clerk who had come to serve him court papers.

Experts Stumble Upon Unexpected Find After Rare ‘Twilight Zone’ Fish Washes Ashore

It’s not every day that a creature straight out of a deep-sea nightmare washes up on the beach — but that’s exactly what happened recently on the Oregon coast.

According to the team at Seaside Aquarium, a rare and intimidating deep-sea predator, commonly referred to as a "Twilight Zone" fish, mysteriously appeared on shore, sparking both excitement and curiosity among marine enthusiasts.

The fish, later identified as a longnose lancetfish, is not only rarely seen near the Oregon coast but is also notable for its razor-sharp, fang-like teeth and serpentine body. Although the aquarium staff were familiar with the species, sightings this far north — and in such excellent condition — are highly uncommon.

A Shocking Discovery

The story began when a visitor walked into the aquarium’s gift shop holding a photo of the strange carcass he’d found along the shore. He hoped the experts could help identify it.

“When he showed us the picture, it was such a fresh, great specimen that we were like, ‘Sweet, we’re gonna go pick it up,’” said Tiffany Boothe, assistant manager at Seaside Aquarium.

The fish, which measured about five feet in length, had washed ashore in remarkable shape — a rarity, Boothe noted, as most lancetfish are badly decomposed by the time they’re found.

“We see maybe half a dozen in our area each year,” she added. “It’s not the kind of fish you’d want to meet alive — I definitely wouldn’t touch it.”

A Deep-Sea Predator from the "Twilight Zone"

The longnose lancetfish can grow to a whopping seven feet

Lancetfish usually swim at extreme depths, often more than a mile beneath the ocean’s surface. They favor warmer waters, but migrations as far north as the Bering Sea have been documented, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

One unusual trait of the species is its gelatinous flesh, which Boothe said local seagulls go wild for. But the real scientific goldmine lies inside the fish — its unusually slow digestion offers a rare look into the deep-sea food chain.

Once the aquarium team recovered the specimen, they immediately examined its stomach contents — and what they found was remarkable.

Inside were several squid and octopus remains, along with at least three whole fish — providing a snapshot of the predator’s most recent meals.

A Glimpse into a Hidden Ecosystem

The longnose lancetfish, which can grow up to seven feet long and weigh around 20 pounds, is a predator shrouded in mystery. It’s rarely observed in the wild, and its habits are still being studied.

In a Facebook post, the Seaside Aquarium team described the fish as “barracuda-like,” adding:

“Its beautiful large eyes, sharp fang-like teeth, and snake-like body set it apart from other fish in the Pacific Northwest. While little is known about the longnose lancetfish, we know they inhabit waters from the southern Bering Sea to Chile, ranging from the surface down to depths of 6,000 feet.”

Their diet is as diverse as it is gruesome — studies have shown that they feed on over 90 species of marine life, including other lancetfish, and even plastic waste.

“By studying what lancetfish eat, scientists can track how the ocean food web is evolving — particularly in response to events like El Niño and La Niña,” the aquarium noted.

From the Depths to the Shore

Because of their habitat in the ocean’s mesopelagic zone — commonly called the “Twilight Zone” — lancetfish are rarely encountered by humans. The fish’s scientific name, Alepisaurus, meaning “scaleless lizard,” only adds to its prehistoric mystique.

While unsettling to look at, the lancetfish provides a rare and valuable glimpse into one of Earth’s least-explored frontiers — and a stark reminder of the fragile balance in our oceans.

Stunning Discovery: Ancient Mayan City Unearthed with Palaces, Pyramids, and Plazas

Stunning Discovery: Ancient Mayan City Unearthed with Palaces, Pyramids, and Plazas

Archaeologists in Mexico have made a remarkable discovery: the ruins of a previously unknown Mayan city — complete with palaces, pyramids, and ceremonial plazas — were uncovered during construction work for a new industrial park near Mérida, on the Yucatán Peninsula.

The newly discovered site, named Xiol, features architectural elements characteristic of the Puuc style, which is more commonly found in the southern part of the peninsula. According to researchers, such well-preserved structures are rare this close to Mérida.

Xiol, ciudad maya con vestigios de tipo palacio de tipo Puuc

En el transcurso de cuatro años, los recientes hallazgos han convertido a la zona arqueológica de Xiol en una ciudad precolombina que albergó a más de cuatro mil personas.

Conoce más 👉🏼 https://t.co/8uCkMJ6YNq pic.twitter.com/Mo9XyaNMUZ

— Yucatán Ahora (@yucatanahora) May 26, 2022

“We estimate that more than 4,000 people lived in and around this city,” said archaeologist Carlos Peraza, one of the lead researchers involved in the excavation. The site is believed to have been inhabited between 600 and 900 CE, during the Late Classic period of the Mayan civilization.

Burial Sites and Daily Life

In addition to the urban ruins, researchers discovered nearby burial grounds for both adults and children. Among the graves were personal items, ceremonial offerings, and tools made from obsidian and flint — materials commonly used by the Maya.

Interestingly, remnants of marine life found at the site suggest that the city's inhabitants engaged in coastal fishing, taking advantage of their proximity to the sea.

Discovery Amid Development

Xiol was uncovered only after work had already begun on the industrial park. Construction will continue, but the archaeological remains will be preserved, according to the site’s developers.

“Urban sprawl in this area has led to the destruction of many ancient sites over the years,” Peraza noted. “Even as archaeologists, we didn’t expect to find a site in such an excellent state of preservation.”

This discovery not only enriches our understanding of the ancient Maya in northern Yucatán but also highlights the delicate balance between modern development and the preservation of cultural heritage.

Mystery of Mollusks Found in Minoan Bricks: Why Ancient Cretans Used Them in Construction

A recent study has shed new light on the construction techniques of the Minoan civilization, offering a fascinating glimpse into how ancient Cretans may have used marine life — specifically mollusks — as part of their architectural practices.

Led by Rena Veropoulidou from the Museum of Byzantine Culture in Thessaloniki and Maud Devolder of Ghent University, the research revealed an innovative method of identifying decayed mud bricks by examining mollusk remains found in archaeological layers.

Reconstructing Bronze Age Architecture Through Shells

The architecture of the Aegean Bronze Age, especially on Crete, is known for its fragility. Many structures were built using sun-dried mud bricks, materials that have largely disappeared over time due to environmental degradation. What often remains are only the stone foundations, making it difficult for archaeologists to reconstruct the original buildings accurately.

This challenge has led researchers to explore alternative ways of detecting traces of these now-vanished materials. One recent and promising approach involves analyzing the presence of mollusk shells — particularly species that thrive in seagrass meadows, such as those of Posidonia oceanica.

These marine plants, often gathered and added to the clay mix in brick-making, harbored small mollusks whose shells have survived in the archaeological record. Their presence serves as a biological fingerprint of the original construction material.

A Case Study from Malia

Photo: M. Devolder / S. Déderix / IMS-FORTH

The study focused on Malia, a key Minoan settlement on Crete’s northern coast. Researchers collected soil samples from Early and Middle Bronze Age layers. Using flotation — a technique that separates light organic remains from soil — they recovered numerous mollusk shells.

Analysis revealed a range of mollusk species that are native to Posidonia seagrass meadows. Their presence strongly suggests that the seagrass was used as a tempering agent in the production of mud bricks, likely carried inadvertently along with the mollusks during collection.

Traces of decayed mud and impressions of Posidonia roots found on the site further support the hypothesis. Beyond being filler material, the marine plants may have enhanced the bricks' thermal insulation, fire resistance, and durability — a smart use of local, sustainable resources.

Malia: A Natural Laboratory for Ancient Technology

Malia stands out as a natural laboratory for examining these ancient techniques. From domestic houses to monumental palace buildings, mud bricks were essential to Minoan construction. The discovery of mollusk shells embedded within these materials not only reveals how the bricks were made but also illustrates the deep interaction between the island’s inhabitants and their marine environment.

Photo: M. Devolder / Ministry of Culture of Greece

By studying mollusks as indirect markers of decayed building materials, archaeologists are pioneering a new approach to understanding the perishable elements of ancient architecture. This method also highlights the value of interdisciplinary research in archaeology — combining biology, geology, and cultural studies.

Broader Implications Across the Mediterranean

The findings from Malia could reshape how researchers study other ancient Mediterranean landscapes. Marine plant and mollusk remnants may offer clues to architectural practices and resource use in other coastal societies — providing a richer picture of daily life and environmental adaptation in the ancient world.

Looking forward, the researchers stress the importance of modern comparative studies to better understand the connections between mollusks, marine ecosystems, and ancient building methods. They also advocate for the widespread use of systematic sampling protocols in future excavations to expand the database of ancient mollusks — allowing for even more reliable interpretations.

Health Scare at Eflatunpınar: Alleged Sewage Contamination Threatens Visitors at Historic Hittite Water Monument

Source: Anatolian Archaeology | Original reporting by Muhammet Kürşat Ercan / BBN

Credit: Anatolian Archaeology

A concerning claim has emerged about the Eflatunpınar Hittite Water Monument in Konya’s Beyşehir district — one of Türkiye’s most remarkable archaeological landmarks. The monument, visited by thousands who believe in the healing power of its waters, is reportedly at risk due to possible contamination from nearby sewage.

Nestled on the western edge of Lake Beyşehir at the base of an ancient volcanic mountain, the Eflatunpınar Monument dates back to the 13th century BCE, during the reign of Hittite King Tuthaliya IV. With its striking stone reliefs of deities and its associations with ancient water cult rituals, the site offers both historical and spiritual allure. It was added to UNESCO’s World Heritage Tentative List in 2014.

Yet today, this iconic site faces a potential public health crisis.

Contamination Concerns: Sewage May Be Seeping Into the Spring

Ramazan Toptaş, a retired agricultural engineer from the region, has raised alarms over a possible leakage from the septic system of nearby Sadıkhacı Village — located just two kilometers from the spring that feeds Eflatunpınar. According to Toptaş, waste may be infiltrating the groundwater and mixing with the monument’s source.

“Eflatunpınar is known for its healing water, and many people come here for this reason,” Toptaş told BBN. “But now, there's a real danger that sewage water may be mixing in. This could pose a serious health threat.”

Credit: Anatolian Archaeology

Agricultural engineer Ramazan Toptaş

E. coli Risk: A Potential Outbreak?

Toptaş highlighted that the primary danger lies in the possible presence of Escherichia coli (E. coli), a bacterium commonly found in sewage. If present in high concentrations, it could lead to serious illness or even spark an epidemic.

“Authorities must act without delay,” Toptaş urged. “Water samples should be taken immediately for analysis. Public health must be prioritized.”

So far, there has been no official response from relevant authorities, but local residents and frequent visitors to Eflatunpınar are demanding immediate investigation and transparency.

What’s at Stake?

The implications of this claim go far beyond environmental concern. They touch on tourism, cultural heritage, and — most importantly — public health. As thousands continue to visit the site for its natural beauty and historical significance, many now wonder: is the water still safe?

NASA Discovers Striking Rock on Mars — and Has No Idea Where It Came From

Once again, NASA's Perseverance rover has stumbled upon something remarkable on Mars. During an expedition through Jezero Crater, the rover encountered a dark, angular rock unlike anything else previously seen on the planet. Its origin? Still a mystery.

Scientists have dubbed the unusual find “Skull Hill.” Discovered in the Port Anson region, it sits on the lower slope of Witch Haze Hill — a location that’s more significant than it sounds. This is where two very different types of Martian terrain meet: dark and light rock formations.

What makes Skull Hill truly stand out is its stark contrast against the pale backdrop. Even more intriguing is how sharply defined the rock appears. This suggests it didn’t form where it currently lies but was instead transported there — possibly by dramatic natural forces, such as a meteor impact or a mudslide.

Skull Hill: Meteorite or Volcanic Rock?

While NASA's Curiosity rover has identified multiple meteorites on Mars in the past, Skull Hill seems to defy that trend. Its composition doesn’t align with that of typical meteorites, which are usually rich in iron and nickel and have a dense, metallic sheen.

Initial data from Perseverance’s SuperCam indicates that Skull Hill may, in fact, be volcanic in origin. Still, more testing is required before researchers can draw any firm conclusions.

The big question now is: what exactly is this rock? It might seem like a minor detail, but such findings are key to unlocking Mars’ geological history. Skull Hill could provide valuable insights into the Red Planet’s ancient volcanic activity, past collisions, or the broader evolution of its landscape.

Symbols of Origin: How Cave Paintings Help Define Who We Are Today

In 2018, the discovery of the oldest known cave painting on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi shattered the long-standing European belief that the earliest artistic expressions emerged solely from Southern Europe.

This remarkable find — a depiction of a wild boar alongside human-like figures — was dated to around 50,000 years ago, challenging the idea that iconic European sites like the Lascaux and Niaux caves in France held the oldest examples of figurative art.

But the significance of this discovery goes far beyond reshaping the timeline of prehistoric art. It offers powerful evidence that early humans were capable of narrative thinking and visual communication — core skills that remain essential in art to this day.

Why Cave Art Belongs in the History of Art

Although cave paintings are primarily studied by archaeologists and anthropologists, many art critics argue that they deserve a central place in the history of art itself.

These early depictions of animals, humans, and landscapes represent the first known instances of visual storytelling — a practice that continues today in painting, film, comics, and beyond. They reveal not just what early humans saw, but how they thought and interpreted the world around them.

Professor Maxime Aubert of Griffith University in Australia has emphasized that these creations demonstrate abstract thinking, underscoring their importance in the development of the human mind.

Storytelling, which today takes the form of literature, theater, and cinema, was just as vital for our prehistoric ancestors as it is for us now. Through these early images, they communicated ideas, fears, beliefs, and knowledge — passing them from one generation to the next.

The True Legacy of Human Creativity

Art is not — and never has been — an exclusively European phenomenon. Expressiveness, the use of color, and the pursuit of perspective are not Western inventions; they are intrinsic to the human spirit.

From the cave paintings of Indonesia and Africa to the vibrant murals of the Aztecs and the intricate sculptures of the Chinese dynasties, art has always been a global language — one deeply entwined with what it means to be human.

By recognizing the value of non-European art traditions, we not only enrich our understanding of human history, but also give due respect to the cultural roots shared by all of humanity.

The Eye of the Sahara: A Geological Marvel in Mauritania That’s Visible from Space

A timeless mystery at the heart of the desert

Hidden among the vast sand dunes of the Sahara and invisible to the naked eye from ground level, yet clearly visible from space, lies one of Earth’s most striking and mysterious geological formations — the Richat Structure, more famously known as the Eye of the Sahara.

From the desert floor, it might appear as just another forgotten stretch of barren land. But from above, a stunning spiral emerges — a circular formation spanning 40 to 50 kilometers in diameter, resembling an ancient fossil or perhaps even an alien construct.

This mesmerizing natural wonder in Mauritania has intrigued scientists, explorers, and travelers for decades. Once thought to be the result of a meteorite impact, the Eye of the Sahara is now understood to be a deeply eroded geological dome, formed from layers of sedimentary rock that have been gradually laid bare by the persistent forces of wind and water. While science may explain its origin, its striking appearance and the many theories surrounding its possible ancient uses continue to feed the imagination.

Discovering the Richat Structure

When it comes to natural wonders, the Richat Structure stands out as a true gem of the desert. With its vast circular shape and complex pattern of concentric rings, it’s a breathtaking sight — so massive it can even be seen from space. These swirling geological layers are a powerful testament to the Earth-shaping forces that sculpted our planet over millions of years.

Far from being a crater, the formation is actually an uplifted dome of sedimentary rock, slowly worn away to reveal its inner structure. The alternating bands of rock types tell a silent story of geological time, offering scientists a unique window into Earth’s distant past. For geologists and nature enthusiasts alike, it’s a fascinating case study in natural history.

Unraveling the Mystery

While the geological explanation for the Richat Structure is well-established, the role it may have played in ancient times remains a subject of speculation and debate. Some researchers suggest it may have served as a landmark for navigation across the desert, a site for ceremonial rituals, a hub for early trade routes — or even an ancient astronomical observatory.

The absence of definitive archaeological evidence only deepens the mystery and allure of the Eye of the Sahara. Its enigmatic presence in the middle of a remote and arid landscape continues to inspire wonder, inviting us to imagine the stories it might hold and the civilizations that may have once gazed upon it with the same awe we feel today.

Schopenhauer on the Meaning of Life: “As We Grow Older, We Live With…”

There comes a quiet, almost imperceptible moment when one begins to suspect that the world is not the grand, pulsating drama it once seemed to be. That the parade of human affairs—with all its noise and spectacle—resembles not so much a Shakespearean tragedy, but more a puppet show. Arthur Schopenhauer, with his signature blend of sharp prose and philosophical insight, directs our attention precisely to this disillusionment.

In this slow unraveling of illusion, in the thinning of the veil of meaning, and in the strange tranquility that accompanies it, we encounter the essence of Schopenhauer’s worldview.

Excerpt from: Arthur Schopenhauer – The Art of Surviving, Gnosi Publications

“Every gifted individual—anyone not belonging to the unfortunate five-sixths of humanity that are, by nature, inferior—finds it difficult, once past forty, not to display some signs of misanthropy.

Having judged others through himself, he realizes that in both mind and heart—often in both—he has reached a level others simply cannot attain. And so, he avoids their company.

For the same reason, people either love or hate their solitude—meaning their own company—depending on how much they are worth.

When we are young, no matter what anyone tells us, we think life is endless. We waste time recklessly. But as we grow older, we become frugal with it. Near the end of life, each day begins to feel like a step toward the gallows—a sensation akin to that of a condemned man on his final walk.

The more we live, the fewer events seem worth remembering. Little strikes us as significant enough to lodge in our memory, so once something passes, we forget it. Time, then, flows without leaving traces.

As we age, we live with decreasing awareness. Things come and go without making an impression—like a work of art we’ve seen a thousand times. We go through the motions, then can’t recall if we’ve done them or not. And as life becomes more automatic, our general awareness fades further, causing time to fly even faster.

One might say that the first forty years of life provide the text, and the following thirty the commentary. Only then do we begin to truly grasp the meaning, the allusions, the moral lessons, and the subtle nuances of that text.

Near the end of life, something happens that resembles the conclusion of a masquerade ball: the masks come off. Suddenly, you see clearly who you’ve really been dealing with all these years. The true nature of people is finally revealed. Actions have borne fruit, accomplishments are properly recognized, and all illusions crumble.

There’s no doubt that youth, despite its vitality, is often tinged with melancholy and sorrow. Old age, on the other hand, tends to bring a kind of cheerfulness—not because of circumstance, but because the young are constantly tormented by a demon that never lets them rest.

That very demon is at the root of almost every form of misery that afflicts or threatens mankind. The elderly, however, resemble someone who has finally been released from bondage after many years—they move freely, with lightness and peace.

That said, we must also acknowledge a sobering truth: when the sexual instinct fades, the true core of life disappears with it, leaving only the shell. Life becomes like a comedy that starts with real actors but ends with puppets, dressed in human clothes, continuing the show until the curtain falls.”

2,500-Year-Old Tombs Discovered in an Unexpected Location – Shedding New Light on Ancient Cultures

An extraordinary archaeological discovery has come to light in Gdynia, Poland, where a routine infrastructure project unearthed something no one expected: prehistoric burial mounds dating back more than 2,500 years. Found during the construction of a bypass road near the Witomino area, the site revealed three burial mounds (known as kurgans) containing seven tombs associated with the Lusatian and Pomeranian cultures, which thrived during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age.

This marks the first systematic study of such funerary structures within the city limits, offering rare insights into ancient human activity in the area. The discovery was made as part of a salvage excavation effort, since the roadwork was intersecting known archaeological zones.

Archaeologists identified a variety of burial types, including stone-lined cist graves, cremation pits, and other funerary constructions — each shedding light on the burial practices of early European societies.

What the Excavations Revealed

In one of the mounds, researchers uncovered a stone tomb containing an urn burial, a hallmark of the Lusatian culture, which flourished from around 1300 to 500 BCE. This culture is known for its urnfield cemeteries and fortified settlements.

Interestingly, a second cremation burial was found directly above the original grave, indicating that the mound had been reused centuries later by a different group — a practice that suggests the site retained spiritual or cultural importance over a long period of time.

The second mound yielded more graves attributed to the Pomeranian culture, which followed the Lusatian and was active between the 7th and 5th centuries BCE. Among the most striking finds was a face-shaped funerary urn, a ceramic vessel with human-like features — a distinct element of Pomeranian funerary tradition.

In the third mound, archaeologists uncovered additional ceramic fragments and cremated human remains. Excavations are still ongoing.

Outside the mounds, the team also found a bronze axe, likely part of a ritual offering, adding to the significance of the discovery.

Cultural and Historical Context

Experts believe these burial mounds reflect a continuity of sacred practices across cultural transitions. The reuse of the same site by successive groups suggests it held enduring spiritual or ceremonial significance.

Maciej Stromski, the lead archaeologist overseeing the excavation, emphasized:

“The stratified burial layers from different periods show a profound respect for these sites. Beyond their role as cemeteries, they were sacred spaces — likely linked to local beliefs about continuity, memory, and connection to the past.”

The Lusatian culture, which spanned large parts of present-day Poland, Germany, and the Czech Republic, is noted for its advanced metallurgy and organized social structures. Its successor, the Pomeranian culture, preserved many of the same burial traditions but also introduced new symbolic forms — such as anthropomorphic urns.

Ongoing Archaeological Work

Construction on the portion of the bypass intersecting the burial site has been temporarily halted to allow for further excavation and documentation. Archaeologists estimate that work will continue for another two to three weeks, with the area currently under official protection to prevent disturbance.

Local authorities have expressed support for the archaeological efforts and confirmed that measures are being taken to preserve the most important findings. A representative from the Gdynia municipal council noted that select artifacts may be exhibited in local museums or used in educational programs aimed at promoting the region’s early history.

Meanwhile, construction on other sections of the bypass — which is designed to ease traffic congestion — will proceed as planned.

Why This Discovery Matters

This find adds to a growing list of prehistoric archaeological sites in northern Poland, a region rich in history but increasingly constrained by urban development. It also highlights the importance of integrating archaeological assessments into infrastructure projects, ensuring that heritage preservation and modernization can go hand-in-hand.

The burial mounds unearthed in Gdynia offer a rare window into the funerary traditions of early European cultures, connecting the modern city to a distant and spiritually rich past. The artifacts associated with the Lusatian and Pomeranian peoples don’t just illustrate ancient rituals — they reflect a deeper cultural continuity and reverence for sacred places.

As analysis and conservation continue, researchers hope to gain a fuller understanding of the people who once lived here — their cultural practices, their beliefs, and how they shaped the historical landscape we see today.

Ritual Closure of Monuments and Symbolic Respect for Space: The Cases of Lerna and Sissi

---

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

---

Deconstructing Theories of External Imposition

The recent study of the cemetery at Sissi in Crete reveals a unique ritual practice of the Minoans, interpreted as the symbolic "death" or closure of their tombs. Instead of gradually abandoning the communal graves, the inhabitants of Sissi, around 1700 BCE, undertook a deliberate and ritualized process marking the end of an era.

Specifically, the last dead were buried in small pits or ceramic vessels. Afterwards, they carefully dismantled the tomb walls, crushed some bones to blend with the soil, and celebrated with a large communal feast. The findings include thousands of pottery fragments, remains of cups, and kitchenware, all dated to the same period. These elements suggest a collective ceremony that signaled the final use of the burial grounds.

Figure 3. The archaeological site of Sissi, seen from the north. The white dotted line indicates the limits of the cemetery (Zones 1 & 9) (© Belgian School at Athens, N. Kress).

Finally, participants covered everything with a layer of soil and stones, sealing the site forever. Remarkably, centuries later, when burials resumed in the area, this specific location remained untouched, indicating a lasting respect for this ritual closure. This practice reflects a profound cultural transition and a conscious effort by the Minoans to close a chapter of their history with reverence and ritual significance. The discovery offers valuable insights into the social and religious perceptions of the time and enriches our understanding of Minoan civilization.

The practice of ritually "closing" significant spaces through careful burial and continued respect for tomb or building grounds is also observed in the prehistoric Aegean world. The case of the House of the Tiles at Lerna and the recent discoveries at Sissi in Crete demonstrate the same symbolic logic: the need for a conscious transition and an honorable disengagement from a past charged with social and sacred meaning.

Figure 1. Distribution of Prepalatial and Protopalatial tombs, with the location of the main cemeteries mentioned in the text (S. Déderix).

At Lerna, after the destruction of the House of the Tiles around the end of Early Helladic II (ca. 2400–2200 BCE), the inhabitants carefully emptied the building, set it on fire, and then erected a mound (tumulus) of 19 meters in diameter over its remains. This tumulus was demarcated with a stone ring, and for a significant period during the Early Helladic III phase, no new structures were built atop it—testifying to a profound respect for the space and the historical memory it embodied. A similar ritual strategy, with many parallels, is evident at Sissi.

This analogy suggests that both in mainland Greece and Minoan Crete, the societies of the Late Early Bronze Age did not experience change through violent external impositions but through internal processes of renewal, deeply rooted in a ritual understanding of time, memory, and space. This organized and respectful treatment of earlier monumental architecture stands in contrast to the traditional image of violent invasions or external elite dominance, once assumed by older theories regarding the arrival of the "Proto-Greeks" (in the case of mainland Greece).

Instead, it indicates that the local communities themselves chose to manage the end of an earlier social and political phase through conscious, ritualized closure. Building and maintaining the tumulus can be seen as a way for the community to remember their past and show their pride, without any signs of new power being forced upon them from outside.

Caskey, J.L., Blackburn, E.T., Lerna in the Argolid. A Short Guide, American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Athens, 1977. © American School of Classical Studies at Athens

Furthermore, the collapse of the "Corridor House" system was not immediately followed by the rise of new, stronger elite centers, but rather by a phase of social simplification and fragmentation, as indicated by the emergence of apsidal buildings and changes in burial practices. This gradual and endogenous transformation better aligns with scenarios of internal social evolution rather than models of abrupt external domination.

Thus, the cultural changes observed at the end of the third millennium BCE appear to be more closely tied to transformations in local economic, social, and ritual practices rather than to the arrival of foreign populations or imposed systems. The Early Helladic III culture, although distinct from its predecessor, nonetheless shows strong elements of continuity, reshaping and integrating the past through internal processes.

The situations in Lerna and Sissi help break down ideas about quick takeovers or outside influences and improve our understanding of prehistoric communities as active participants in deliberate local cultural changes, where managing space and memory was very important.

New genetic data reveal a strong Greek genetic footprint in Carthage

---

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

---

How and when did the first populations move into North Africa? What is the significance of the detected "Aegean/Greek DNA"? How did the Carthaginians maintain their cultural dominance? (9-minute read)

Carthage was founded in the late 9th century BCE (traditionally 814 BCE) as a colony of Tyre, at a time when Tyre was a thriving commercial center. Therefore, the first inhabitants were Phoenician settlers — Semitic populations from the Levantine coasts, descendants of the ancient Canaanites. However, from the very foundation of the city, it is likely that local Berber (Libyan) populations of North Africa coexisted in the area, with whom the Phoenician settlers interacted and possibly intermarried. The very name of the city (Qart-Ḥadašt, meaning "New City") denotes a new settlement in foreign territory, but its development was closely tied to the local environment. Archaeological and historical evidence suggests that Carthage quickly evolved from a small trading post into a prosperous city-state with its own "Carthaginian" civilization. This civilization was clearly Phoenician (Semitic language, religion, customs), but the ancestry of the city's population was not purely Phoenician.

A recent paleogenetic study shed the first light on the biological composition of the early Carthaginians. The so-called "Young Man of Byrsa"—a man from the late 6th century BCE discovered in a burial chamber at Byrsa Hill in Carthage—revealed through ancient DNA analysis a maternal lineage (mitochondrial haplogroup U5b2c1) that is rare and European, originating from prehistoric populations in the northern Mediterranean. Specifically, this mtDNA links the individual's ancestry to regions such as the Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean islands, or the northern Mediterranean coasts. The discovery constitutes the first direct evidence suggesting that even the early inhabitants of Carthage could have mixed ancestry, including European elements. In other words, the presence of such an ancient European genetic marker (U5b2c1) in North Africa indicates that Phoenician settlers had incorporated individuals from earlier Mediterranean populations (e.g., from Sicily, Sardinia, or Iberia) into their communities. This initial genetic diversity aligns with the historical image of a port city open to various ethnic groups. Although Carthage may have been founded by a few dozen or hundreds of Phoenician settlers, within a few generations its population expanded through admixture with local and other northern Mediterranean peoples. Truthfully, we have long understood that the Phoenicians' cultural dominance in Carthage did not imply absolute demographic dominance. Many ancient Greek colonies also observed the same phenomenon.

This reality became even clearer in a recent large-scale study of 103 ancient genomes from Carthage itself and other Phoenician/Carthaginian sites. Researchers identified a recognizable "Carthaginian" genetic profile, but it bore minimal relation to the populations of ancient Phoenicia. Instead, it was primarily composed of European (Greek/Aegean and Sicilian) and North African genotypes.

The First Neolithic Expansions—Prehistoric Population Flows into North Africa

To understand how European genetic elements appeared in North Africa long before Carthage's founding, we must examine population movements during the Neolithic period. The transition from hunter-gatherer economies to farming and animal husbandry occurred in North Africa approximately 7,500 years ago. Two main theories exist: either that local Mesolithic populations gradually adopted Neolithic innovations or that incoming farmers migrated into the area, bringing their way of life. Ancient DNA now clarifies this process. Furthermore, recent genome studies of prehistoric skeletons in the Maghreb revealed clear ancestry shifts during the Neolithic transition: the earliest Neolithic burials in Northwest Africa primarily show European Neolithic ancestry. The evidence implies that the initial farmers who emerged in Morocco and Algeria were predominantly descended from Neolithic populations from southern Europe. Researchers conclude that migrant European farmers introduced agriculture to Northwest Africa, which then rapidly disseminated among local groups.

This pattern fits into the broader wave of Neolithic farmer expansions from the Near East into Greece and Europe. It is well known that early farmers began in Anatolia and the Levant, spreading gradually westward via coastal Mediterranean routes to the Balkans, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia, and Iberia. Archaeologically, the spread of Impressa/Cardial pottery along coastal zones reflects the so-called "Mediterranean route" of Neolithic expansion. Notably, the appearance of agriculture in northeast Africa (e.g., the eastern Rif in Morocco) is nearly synchronous with its emergence in southern Spain, around 5500 BCE, suggesting maritime transfer of people and ideas. Thus, the wider agricultural dissemination led to a significant expansion of Neolithic populations from Europe into North Africa.

Note that a single migratory stream did not limit the genetic history of North Africa during the Neolithic. In addition to the European Neolithic influx, later contributions from the Near East are detectable. During the Middle Neolithic period, around 5000 BCE, the Maghreb genetic profile shows the introduction of a Levantine element, coinciding with the arrival of pastoralism (cattle, sheep, goats) in the region. This finding suggests that groups of herders possibly migrated westward from the eastern Mediterranean or the Nile Valley, bringing new genetic influences. Ultimately, by the end of the Neolithic, populations of the Maghreb exhibited a mixed genetic profile, combining local Paleolithic/Mesolithic heritage, European Neolithic farmer ancestry, and Near Eastern admixture. This prolonged prehistoric admixture explains why certain ancient European haplogroups (such as U5) or "Sardinian-type" genetic elements later appear among North African populations.

Regarding specifically Mycenaean, Sicilian, or Sardinian populations and their connection to North Africa, the data are fragmentary but indicative. There is no documented direct mass migration of Mycenaeans into North Africa during the Bronze Age. However, the presence of Mycenaean artifacts in Egypt and possible contacts with Libya suggest some level of interaction. After the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization (~1200 BCE), groups from the Aegean participated in the so-called "Sea Peoples," who reached as far as Egypt. Among them were the Sherden (possibly from Sardinia) and the Shekelesh (perhaps from Sicily). Although these groups clashed with Egypt, some may have settled in Libya or Canaan. These late-Chalcolithic or early Iron Age movements may have had a limited impact on western North Africa, though a minor genetic contribution from Aegean/European Bronze Age populations cannot be ruled out.

Moreover, the genetic landscape of the Carthaginians later exhibits strong affinities with ancient Greek populations, possibly linked to these early European movements or to Greek colonies established in Africa.

As for Sicily and Sardinia, these two major Mediterranean islands acted as bridges for population movements. Especially Sicily, due to its proximity to the Tunisian coast, served as a natural channel: early Neolithic settlers could have crossed in either direction between Tunisia and Sicily. During the 3rd millennium BCE (the Bronze Age), Sicily received influences from the Aegean world (e.g., Mycenaean finds) and later from Phoenician and Greek settlers. Sardinia, on the other hand, remained relatively genetically isolated for millennia (modern Sardinians preserve a high proportion of ancient Neolithic ancestry). Nonetheless, the Sherden people's history suggests some early contact with the eastern Mediterranean. In historic times, Carthaginian expansion led to the establishment of Phoenician colonies in Sardinia (e.g., Tharros), prompting some local population movements. Overall, we can say that the genetic impact of Sicilian and Sardinian populations on North Africa is detectable indirectly: either through early Neolithic dissemination (European farmers reaching the Maghreb) or through later historical interactions (e.g., integration of Sicilians into the Carthaginian network).

Phoenician Expansion and Genetic Interactions in the Western Mediterranean

During the Iron Age (1st millennium BCE), the Phoenicians expanded their maritime trading network, establishing numerous outposts and colonies throughout the western Mediterranean. By the 11th–10th century BCE, Phoenician settlements appeared in Spain (e.g., Cádiz), the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Malta, Sardinia, and beyond. The genetic contribution of these Semitic settlers to local populations had long been an open question. Traditionally, it was believed that the "Punic" populations (i.e., the western Phoenician colonies such as Carthage) would exhibit a strong Phoenician (Levantine) genetic signature. However, large-scale ancient DNA analyses have overturned this assumption. Researchers discovered that populations in the western Mediterranean received limited direct genetic input from Phoenician mother cities (Tyre, Sidon, etc.).

Despite their intense cultural, economic, and linguistic influence, the original Phoenician cities contributed minimal direct DNA to the Punic populations of the central and western Mediterranean. The spread of Phoenician culture thus occurred not through mass migration but primarily through the diffusion of cultural models and the integration of local communities.

Specifically, every Phoenician-Carthaginian site studied shows remarkable heterogeneity regarding its inhabitants' origins. Researchers detected an "extremely heterogeneous" genetic profile in ancient skeletons from these sites. In almost all Punic communities — from Carthage itself to colonies in Iberia, Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa — the majority of individuals exhibited ancestries similar to those of ancient Sicilian and Aegean populations (southern Europe), while a significant portion had North African ancestry. In contrast, direct Near Eastern/Semitic genetic input was minimal. This practically means that in Phoenician colonies, people of diverse backgrounds lived together: individuals of local North African descent alongside others of predominantly European (Sicilian/Greek) origin. The different Punic communities were connected via maritime "kinship networks." For instance, a pair of distant relatives (approximately second cousins) were found: one buried in a Phoenician city in North Africa, the other in a Phoenician settlement in Sicily. Such findings illustrate the cosmopolitan character of the Carthaginian network, where movement and intermarriage across different regions were common.

This theory also explains how Phoenician settlers, initially a demographic minority, eventually genetically assimilated local populations rather than replacing them. As geneticist Pierre Zalloua aptly put it, "The Phoenicians were a civilization of integration and assimilation — they settled wherever they traveled." Despite their broad and diverse biological ancestry, these mixed populations transmitted their cultural identity (language, religion, and technical knowledge).

The case of Carthage shows that a group can be very influential in trade and culture even if they are not the largest population, similar to some theories about how Indo-European languages spread, but the history, society, and population of northern Africa at that time were quite different.

In summary, the Carthaginian rulers spoke the Phoenician language and worshipped Phoenician gods, but their subjects and allies came from various Mediterranean nations. In the end, the genetic background of the Carthaginians in the western Mediterranean is spread out and varied, showing a blend of European and African genes with some small Semitic influences, instead of a clear "Phoenician" genetic identity. This conclusion aligns perfectly with historical accounts of the multiethnic societies of the western Mediterranean and highlights how population movements are inextricably linked to cultural interactions.