Heroes and Bones: How Ancient Greeks Interpreted Fossils and Created Myths

April 13, 2025

From the foothills of Pindus to the coasts of Asia Minor, ancient Greeks often encountered peculiar findings in the ground: enormous bones, dentitions, and skulls. These remnants, which we now recognize as fossils of prehistoric animals, inspired some of the most enduring myths of the Greco-Roman world. But how did the ancients interpret these findings? What role did they play in their political, religious, and cultural life?

Researcher Adrienne Mayor, in her seminal work The First Fossil Hunters: Paleontology in Greek and Roman Times, explores this very question, connecting ancient texts, mythological traditions, and geological evidence to argue that the ancients were, in essence, the first paleontologists.

Pausanias and the Bones of Heroes

One of the primary chroniclers of such findings is Pausanias, a 2nd-century AD traveler whose work Description of Greece offers invaluable insights into the religious and mythical landscapes of antiquity. In numerous accounts, Pausanias mentions discoveries of "gigantic bones," attributed to heroes like Orestes and Theseus or even mythical creatures like giants and cyclopes.

For instance, when describing Tegea, Pausanias notes that the Spartans exhumed massive bones they identified as Orestes', following an oracle from Delphi. Upon returning to their homeland, they used these remains as religious and political symbols of victory over the Arcadians.

The Transportation and Politicization of "Relics"

The act of transporting heroic bones wasn't merely an honor to ancestors; it carried political intent and ideological weight. The relocation of Theseus' bones from Skyros to Athens by Cimon in 475 BC bolstered Athens' political unity and democratic resurgence under Pericles.

map by Michele Mayor Angel, Mayor 2000: 114, Mar 3.1

Adrienne Mayor highlights the use of these findings to "legitimize" a city's dominance or to fortify collective identity. They served as evidence of genealogical ties to the heroic age, justifying political ambitions or military interventions.

Herodotus and the Tradition of "Tribal" Memory

While Herodotus doesn't frequently mention specific bones, his Histories incorporate numerous local narratives that seem to stem from natural discoveries. Descriptions of "monstrous" beings, such as the griffins in Scythia, might have originated from fossils of prehistoric mammals unearthed by gold miners in those regions.

How Did the Ancients Explain Fossils? Explaining the Bones: Myth as Natural History

For ancient Greeks, there was no clear distinction between science, mythology, and theology. Observing a massive femur could reasonably lead to the belief that it belonged to a Giant or Titan. Legends of the Gigantomachy or Titanomachy might be mythological "memories" of a prehistoric world dominated by colossal beings.

The Trojan Monster as it is depicted on an ancient Greek vase, housed at the Mu seum of Boston

In areas like Lesbos and Samos, locals believed fossils were remnants of wars between gods and heroes. On Chios, a fossil was attributed to Ajax the Telamonian, while in the Aegean islands, "the shoulders of giants" were often depicted in public rituals or housed in temples.

Adrienne Mayor and the Modern Reinterpretation of Myths

Mayor's significant contribution lies in crediting the ancients with observational skills and rationality. In her book, she presents numerous examples where Greeks not only interpreted these bones but also integrated them into a natural history of the world. She attributes to them an early form of scientific thinking: recognizing that the world was once inhabited by different species.

Mayor compares ancient findings with modern paleontological analyses, noting that many regions mentioned in texts, like Tegea and Skyros, indeed contain fossils of large mammals from the Pleistocene. The bones considered to be Orestes' might have been remnants of mammoths or other megafauna.

The Trojan monster could correspond to the skull of Samotherium. The picture of the vase is taken from Mayor (2000) and the drawing of Samotherium from Lydekker(1883).

From Myth to Natural Interpretation: The End of "Fantasy"?

Modern archaeology and paleontology, aided by geology, validate the ancients' intuition to some extent. Rather than being naive or pre-scientific, ancient Greeks emerge as observers of the natural world with creative thinking. The connection between natural findings and mythological tradition was their way of understanding and interpreting the inaccessible past.

Fossils in ancient Greece weren't merely "lifeless remnants"—they were carriers of stories, foundations of myths, evidence of divine presence, and tools of political dominance. Adrienne Mayor's work is invaluable, allowing us to view the ancients not only as myth-makers but also as proto-scientists striving to decipher the Earth's signs, much like we endeavor to interpret their writings.

This dialogue between the natural world and cultural memory is perhaps the most authentic form of "paleontology": not just about what happened, but about how people interpreted it.

Decoding the Minoan 'Master's Seal': Architectural and Religious Symbolism in Minoan Civilization

April 12, 2025

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Minoan "Master's Seal," also known as the "Master Impression," is a remarkable artifact from the Late Minoan period (circa 1450–1400 BCE), currently housed in the Archaeological Museum of Chania, Crete. This small clay seal impression, measuring approximately 1.5 cm in diameter, offers a detailed depiction of Minoan architecture and religious symbolism, providing valuable insights into the civilization's societal structure and artistic achievements.

Discovery and Context

The seal was discovered during Greek-Swedish excavations on Kastelli Hill in Chania, the site of ancient Kydonia. This area has yielded significant Minoan remains, indicating its importance as a center of administration and religion during the Late Minoan period. The seal impression was found in a context suggesting it was discarded during the reinhabitation of the area following the LMIB destruction horizon, a period marked by widespread upheaval in Minoan Crete.

Description of the Seal

The "Master's Seal" presents a complex scene carved in miniature detail. It depicts a multi-story architectural complex situated atop a steep, rocky hill, resembling the topography of Kastelli Hill. The buildings are arranged in a heraldic composition with seven wings across four levels, the lowest enclosed by a fortification-like wall. Two gates, possibly made from wooden trunks, and a frieze of half-rosettes adorn the lintel, adding decorative and structural elements.

At the apex of the central structure stands a youthful male figure holding a spear or staff. His elevated position and commanding posture suggest a symbolic role, possibly representing a deity or high-ranking worshiper, commonly interpreted as a "Young Master," embodying authority or divine presence. The buildings are crowned with the characteristic horns of consecration, underscoring their ritual or sacred significance.

Symbolism and Interpretation

The seal's imagery reflects the Minoan civilization's intricate relationship between architecture, religion, and societal hierarchy. The presence of the "Young Master" figure atop the central structure may symbolize divine oversight or theocratic leadership, suggesting that political and religious authority were intertwined in Minoan society. The horns of consecration, a recurring motif in Minoan art, further emphasize the sacred nature of the depicted complex.

Some scholars propose that the scene represents a specific sanctuary or palace, possibly serving as a model for actual Minoan architectural practices. The detailed depiction of architectural elements, such as multi-story buildings and decorative friezes, provides valuable information about Minoan construction techniques and aesthetic preferences.

Artistic and Cultural Significance

Despite its small size, the "Master's Seal" demonstrates the Minoan artisans' exceptional skill in miniature carving and their ability to convey complex narratives through art. The seal serves not only as an administrative tool but also as a medium for expressing religious and political ideologies. Its intricate design and symbolic content offer a window into the values and beliefs of Minoan society during the Late Bronze Age.

The Minoan "Master's Seal" stands as a testament to the civilization's artistic prowess and the intricate interplay between architecture, religion, and authority in their society. Its detailed imagery provides scholars with a rich source of information about Minoan culture, offering insights into their architectural practices, religious symbolism, and societal structure. As one of the most significant artifacts from Minoan Crete, the seal continues to captivate researchers and visitors alike, shedding light on the complexities of this ancient civilization.

How Did the Parthenon End Up in Nashville, Tennessee?

April 12, 2025

Yes, you read that right—there’s a full-scale replica of the Parthenon in the heart of the American South. And inside? A towering statue of Athena. So how did a symbol of ancient Greek civilization end up in Nashville?

The “Athens of the South”

Nashville has long been known as the “Athens of the South,” thanks to its many educational institutions and dedication to classical learning. So, some city leaders thought, what better way to live up to that nickname than to build a replica of one of history’s most iconic architectural landmarks—the Parthenon.

And so began one of the most surprising cultural imports in American history: a faithful reproduction of Athens’ crowning architectural achievement, right in Tennessee.

The Creation

In the late 1800s, Nashville was preparing for the Tennessee Centennial Exposition, a grand event marking 100 years since the state joined the Union. Eugene Castner Lewis, director of the exposition, envisioned a celebration that would include replicas of classical monuments, all built in Centennial Park.

The crown jewel of the exhibition would be a full-scale replica of the Parthenon. The project was led by architect William Crawford Smith, a Civil War veteran who fought for the South. Unlike the other buildings at the fair, the Parthenon was constructed to mirror the original in Athens down to the exact dimensions.

From Temporary to Timeless

Originally built using plaster, wood, and brick, the Nashville Parthenon was intended as a temporary structure—set to be dismantled after the exposition ended. But its popularity changed everything. The city decided to keep it, making it the only structure from the 1897 Centennial Exposition to remain in the park. (Only one other structure from the exposition survived—the Knights of Pythias Pavilion, which was relocated to nearby Franklin.)

Over the next two decades, however, the original materials began to deteriorate. In the 1920s, the city decided to rebuild the Parthenon using concrete. Architect Russell Hart took over the project, completing the exterior in 1925 and the interior in 1931.

A Cultural Landmark

Since then, Nashville’s Parthenon has become an iconic part of the city’s landscape, drawing hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. It has hosted grand theatrical productions, competitions, and public events—cementing its role as a vibrant cultural hub.

The Statue of Athena

In 1990, a full-scale replica of the famed Athena Parthenos statue was installed inside the Parthenon. Standing 42 feet (13 meters) tall, the statue brings to life the centerpiece of the original temple in Athens. In addition, sculpted replicas of the original pediment figures now adorn the building, completing the authentic experience.

Museum and Cultural Center

Today, the Parthenon serves as an art museum. It houses a permanent collection and regularly features traveling exhibits. In the summer months, the grounds host performances of ancient Greek tragedies—bringing classical drama to life under the stars.

In 2001, the building underwent extensive restoration and cleaning, including an upgraded lighting system that now illuminates the structure beautifully at night.

Plan Your Visit

The Nashville Parthenon is open daily to the public, with an admission fee of $10. It also has an official website where visitors can learn about its history, upcoming exhibitions, and special events.

What started as a centennial celebration has become a lasting symbol of Nashville’s unique blend of Southern charm and classical inspiration.

6 Ancient Technologies That Were Way Ahead of Their Time

April 12, 2025

1. Ancient Chinese Drilling Rig (2nd–3rd Century CE)

Salt was one of the most essential resources in antiquity, especially for preserving food long before refrigeration. Around 2,000 years ago, the Chinese developed an advanced drilling technology to extract salt directly from underground deposits. They engineered a bamboo drill with a heavy, rhythmically pounding drum capable of reaching depths of up to 600 meters.

Sometimes, during drilling, they encountered methane pockets—and eventually, these early engineers learned how to harness that gas too. It’s an astonishing example of technological ingenuity far ahead of its time.

2. The Greek Steam Engine (1st Century CE)

While the first practical steam engines appeared in the 17th century, a Greek inventor named Hero of Alexandria had already envisioned steam-powered motion centuries earlier. In his writings on mechanics, Hero described several fascinating devices—including the “aeolipile,” often referred to as the Hero’s engine.

This early steam turbine consisted of a metal sphere with bent tubes that rotated as steam escaped under pressure. Though too small and inefficient for practical use, Hero had already uncovered the basic principles of steam power—over a thousand years before the Industrial Revolution.

3. Byzantine Flamethrower (7th Century CE)

Flamethrowers might sound like a 20th-century invention, but the Byzantines were using something very similar over a millennium ago. Known as “Greek fire,” this terrifying weapon was used in naval warfare, and its exact composition remains a mystery to this day—though historians suspect petroleum was a key ingredient.

To deploy it, the Byzantines first created rudimentary grenades, and eventually developed a mechanical flamethrower. Astonishingly, these deadly machines used principles still found in modern flamethrowers: a pump, a fuel tank, and a lit fuse.

4. The Iron Pillar of Delhi (circa 400 CE)

During the Middle Ages, some artisans had mastered metal-coating techniques that even today are considered advanced. One remarkable artifact from that era is the Iron Pillar of Delhi—a seven-meter-tall column that has resisted corrosion for over 1,500 years.

What’s the secret? The pillar was forged with a high phosphorus content, which acts as a natural rust inhibitor. This exceptional level of metallurgical knowledge has left modern scientists both impressed and perplexed.

5. Viking Compass (11th Century CE)

Navigation in ancient times was notoriously difficult, relying heavily on the stars and the sun. So how did the Vikings manage to sail reliably between Norway and Greenland in the Middle Ages?

The answer may lie in a curious artifact known as the Uunartoq disc—an ancient solar compass. Historical texts mention that this device contained a “magical crystal.” Today, researchers believe that polarizing crystals (like Iceland spar) could have helped Vikings navigate even in low light, leading to myths of magical guidance that were likely based on real optical science.

6. The Baghdad Battery (2nd Century BCE)

The so-called Baghdad Battery, discovered in modern-day Iraq, is a ceramic pot containing a copper tube wrapped around an iron rod—capable of producing a small electric charge. Essentially, it's an ancient battery, albeit a primitive one.

Acidic liquid inside the jar likely triggered an electron flow from one metal to the other, just like in today’s batteries. But what was it used for? That remains a mystery. Theories range from electroplating metals to religious rituals involving electric shocks to awe or punish the unfaithful.

Conclusion:
While modern technology continues to advance at breakneck speed, these ancient innovations remind us that humanity’s inventive spirit has deep roots. From steam power to chemical warfare and electricity, our ancestors were thinking ahead—often much further than we give them credit for.

2. The Greek Steam Engine (1st Century CE)

3. Byzantine Flamethrower (7th Century CE)

4. The Iron Pillar of Delhi (circa 400 CE)

Chinese Defense Minister Liang Guanglie places his hands around the Iron Pillar of Delhi during his visit to the landmark Qutub Minar monument in New Delhi, India (2012).
*AP Photo / Manish Swarup (Archive)*

5. Viking Compass (11th Century CE)

6. The Baghdad Battery (2nd Century BCE)

The Fierce Greek Tribe That Defeated Alexander the Great’s Army

April 12, 2025

When we think of Ancient Greece, names like Athenians, Spartans, Macedonians, and Thebans usually come to mind. But there was one tribe—wild, proud, and largely forgotten—that achieved something truly remarkable: the Aetolians, a people whose defiance shook even the mighty legacy of Alexander the Great.

Their story is one of the most surprising military upsets in ancient history.

Aetolia: The Untamed Land That Refused to Bow

It was the year 322 BCE. Alexander the Great had died, but his Macedonian empire remained dominant, having subdued nearly every major Greek city-state—Athens and Sparta included. Only one region still clung to independence: the rugged highlands of Aetolia, home to a loose confederation of tribes best known for their herding lifestyle and fierce autonomy.

In the summer of 321 BCE, the Macedonians decided it was time to bring Aetolia into the fold. They sent an imposing army of over 30,000 troops, led by Craterus, a veteran general who had campaigned alongside Alexander during his conquest of Asia.

What happened next took everyone by surprise.

Despite being vastly outnumbered, the Aetolians chose not to surrender or flee. Instead, they waged guerrilla warfare—leveraging their intimate knowledge of the mountainous terrain. They ambushed Macedonian columns, fortified key passes, and launched hit-and-run attacks that wore down the invaders.

Craterus’ Plan Backfires

Realizing that brute force wasn't enough, Craterus devised a winter strategy: he cut off access to the lowlands, where the Aetolians traditionally went to forage and find supplies. Starvation and freezing temperatures set in, weakening the Aetolian resistance.

But even under these brutal conditions, they refused to yield.

Months passed, and the Aetolians endured. Eventually, the Macedonians, worn down by attrition and failing morale, abandoned the campaign altogether. They withdrew from Aetolia and opened peace negotiations.

A Victory Lost to Time

While Athens and Sparta had fallen, a tribe of shepherds in the hills stood victorious against a military superpower. Their story, buried in the shadows of more famous battles and kings, remains one of the greatest underdog triumphs in the annals of Ancient Greek history.

It’s a reminder that sometimes, the most unlikely warriors can leave the deepest mark—not just on the battlefield, but on history itself.

The Ancient Secret That Has Protected the Parthenon from Earthquakes for Thousands of Years

April 12, 2025

In 1885, Greek archaeologist Panagiotis Kavvadias began one of the most extensive excavations ever conducted around the Parthenon. Among the remarkable findings was something entirely unexpected: a vast underground structure directly beneath the ancient temple—something no one had known existed until that day.

What he uncovered was a massive stylobate, a foundational platform made up of hundreds of carefully carved limestone blocks, each measuring approximately 77 by 32 meters.

Archaeologists later confirmed that this monumental base had actually been built before the Parthenon itself. But what existed on the Acropolis before the iconic temple we know today? And how has this ancient foundation created a natural seismic buffer that has protected the Parthenon for millennia?

The Temple That Preceded the Parthenon

Research revealed that this foundation was originally constructed for the Pre-Parthenon—a temple that stood on the Acropolis before the Parthenon. Construction is believed to have begun shortly after the Battle of Marathon (490–488 BCE), when the southern part of the hill was leveled to make way for the new structure.

However, in 480 BCE, before the temple could be completed, Persian forces invaded Athens and destroyed the Acropolis, including everything built upon it.

Amazingly, what remained almost entirely untouched was the stylobate—the limestone foundation beneath the destroyed temple. Years later, the Athenians chose to reuse this very foundation to construct the Parthenon, much of which still stands proudly to this day.

What Makes This Structure So Earthquake-Resistant?

Archaeologists discovered that the limestone blocks were laid side by side in 22 interlocking layers, stacked precisely up to the level of the temple’s marble platform (crepidoma). This method of construction, combined with the materials used, created an incredibly dense and cohesive mass that has remained intact for thousands of years.

They were also astounded by the depth of the structure, which in some areas reaches up to 11 meters. Moreover, the newer Parthenon temple, being wider and shorter than its predecessor, helped further stabilize the structure—resulting in a natural seismic shield that has protected the Parthenon from significant earthquake damage over the centuries.

What seems like a marvel of modern engineering is, in fact, the legacy of ancient ingenuity. The Athenians may not have had today’s scientific understanding of earthquakes, but they clearly knew a thing or two about building to last.

They Pulled the Brain Out Through the Nose — Literally: How the Ancient Egyptians Made Mummies

April 12, 2025

It’s not a myth. The ancient Egyptians really did remove the brain through the nose when preparing a body for mummification. And yes—they did it quite literally.

The image of a mummy might inspire awe, mystery, or even fear. But behind the linen wrappings and golden death masks lies one of the most bizarre and chilling procedures of the ancient world: the extraction of the brain through the nasal cavity. Strange as it may sound, it was standard practice—and done with precision.

The Egyptians believed that to reach the afterlife, the body had to remain intact—at least on the outside. What couldn’t be seen, like the brain, could be removed. In fact, it wasn’t just accepted—it was necessary. Since cracking open the skull with a blade would disfigure the head, they found a more discreet route: through the nose.

Using a long, thin, hook-like instrument, embalmers would insert the tool into the nostril and begin breaking apart the brain, turning it into a mushy mass. This was either drained out through the nostrils or, in more advanced methods, pulled out bit by bit. The skull was then cleaned out and often filled with linen or resin to keep the head from collapsing.

Perhaps the most fascinating detail? The heart, not the brain, was considered the seat of thought, emotion, and the soul. That’s why it was often preserved within the body—while the brain was discarded as useless. A decision that would likely bring modern doctors to tears.

These techniques were mostly reserved for the elite and royalty, where mummification was an art form performed with surgical precision. The less fortunate received a simpler embalming—sometimes with no organ removal at all. Yet for pharaohs and nobles, the process was detailed and sacred.

Greek historian Herodotus described this practice in the 5th century BCE, though evidence shows it had been in use at least a thousand years earlier, during Egypt’s 18th Dynasty.

To our modern sensibilities, the procedure may seem cruel or grotesque. But to the Egyptians, it was an act of love—a preparation for eternity. For them, death was not the end—it was the beginning.
And so, before placing the golden mask over the face of the deceased, they would first pull the brain out through the nose.

Japan’s “Atlantis”: Built 12,000 Years Before Any Known Advanced Civilization?

April 12, 2025

The legend of the Lost City of Atlantis has fascinated humanity for centuries, blurring the lines between myth and reality. But while most associate this tale with ancient Greece, Japan, too, may hold its own version of a sunken empire—deep beneath the waves of the East China Sea.

At the southwestern tip of the Ryukyu archipelago, just 62 miles off the coast of Taiwan, lies the small island of Yonaguni. With a modest population of around 1,684 residents, the island may seem unremarkable at first glance. However, hidden beneath its surrounding waters lies a mysterious underwater formation that has captured the world’s imagination.

Nicknamed “Japan’s Atlantis,” the Yonaguni Monument is a massive rock structure resembling the ruins of an uninhabited underwater city. Discovered in 1986 by diver Kihachiro Aratake, who was initially observing local hammerhead shark populations, the finding was purely accidental.

“I was overwhelmed when I discovered it,” Aratake told BBC Global. “I knew it would become a treasure of Yonaguni. I kept it a secret at first—I didn’t even tell my own team.”

A Monument Beneath the Waves

The structure is approximately 50 meters long and 20 meters wide, with flat surfaces, sharp edges, and what appear to be spiral staircases carved into the stone. For years, it has left locals and researchers alike puzzled and intrigued.

But the debate remains:
Is the Yonaguni Monument a man-made relic of an ancient civilization—or merely a product of natural geological processes?

A Lost Civilization or Natural Wonder?

Proponents of the theory that Yonaguni is an artificial structure believe it’s evidence of a long-lost civilization, predating any known advanced society. One of the leading voices in this camp is geologist Masaaki Kimura, a former professor at the University of the Ryukyus.

According to IFLScience, Kimura has argued that the formations were once part of a lost continent, possibly Lemuria, and were built 2,000 to 3,000 years ago, during a time when sea levels were significantly lower.

Renowned author Graham Hancock, known for his alternative historical theories, has also expressed support for this idea.

Science Weighs In

Despite the enthusiasm surrounding such theories, the scientific consensus leans toward a more grounded explanation: natural erosion.

Robert Schoch, a professor at Boston University, has been particularly vocal. In an earlier interview with National Geographic, he dismissed the man-made claims, describing the monument as a product of "basic geology and classical stratigraphy for sandstones."

“Sandstones tend to fracture along bedding planes, which can result in very straight edges—especially in tectonically active regions with numerous fault lines,” Schoch explained.

While the Yonaguni Monument may never be definitively classified as either the remnants of an ancient civilization or a remarkable quirk of nature, it continues to inspire curiosity, debate, and wonder.

Whether Japan’s own "Atlantis" is history or legend, one thing is certain: the secrets of the sea still have much to reveal.

Sesönk Tumulus: The Commagene Kingdom’s Monument That Defies Time

April 12, 2025

In the ancient, mystical landscape of Adıyaman, the Sesönk Tumulus—also known as Dikilitaş—rises silently, like a whisper echoing from the depths of time. This 2,060-year-old monumental tomb is believed to be the final resting place of King Mithridates II, son of King Antiochos I of the Commagene Kingdom. Carved into the bedrock and crowned with a massive mound of rubble stones, the Sesönk Tumulus exudes an aura of grandeur, mystery, and timelessness.

A Tomb Like No Other

Unlike other ancient burial mounds, the Sesönk Tumulus reflects a distinct architectural vision unique to the Commagene civilization. Constructed from large rubble stones and featuring rock-carved burial chambers, the site showcases the kingdom’s skill in blending natural elements with royal splendor.

Perched high in the Kızıltepe region of Dikilitaş Village, the tumulus stands like an eagle’s nest, accessible only by a demanding 20- to 25-minute uphill trek. But the journey is worth every step. Visitors are rewarded not only with a rare archaeological gem but also with sweeping panoramic views of the Anatolian landscape.

Echoes of the Past

Scattered around the site are the remains of once-majestic columns, silent witnesses to the grandeur that once was. Why the Commagene rulers chose to build their monuments at such lofty heights remains a topic of intrigue. Was it to be closer to the divine? Or perhaps for defensive purposes? The answer, like much about this enigmatic kingdom, remains hidden in the stones.

Mehmet Alkan, Director of the local museum, offers further insight:

“The tumulus stands at a height of 7 meters. It’s a tomb carved into rock, containing three niches. The rubble stones forming the upper structure resemble those found at Karakuş Tumulus, further linking it to Commagene architecture. We believe this may be the burial place of Mithridates II, son of Antiochos I, dating between 36 and 21 BC. It’s located in an untouched, elevated region—consistent with the Commagene kings’ tendency to build in high places.”

A Journey Through Time and Nature

The Sesönk Tumulus is more than just a burial site—it’s a portal into the mysterious world of the Commagene Kingdom. Here, history and nature intertwine, offering visitors a deeply immersive experience that bridges millennia.

A Glimpse into the Commagene Kingdom

The Commagene Kingdom thrived between 163 BC and 72 AD, ruling a region that today includes Adıyaman, Gaziantep, and Kahramanmaraş. A fusion of Persian and Hellenistic influences, the kingdom is best known for the monumental tombs and colossal statues that crown Mount Nemrut.

The golden era of Commagene came under King Antiochos I Theos, who emphasized cultural synthesis and divine kingship. Claiming ancestry from both Persian nobility and Greek royalty, the Commagene rulers saw themselves as a living bridge between East and West—a vision still etched into the very stones of their monumental legacies.

Lost Tomb of St. Nicholas? Carbon Testing in Turkey May Confirm Santa's Burial Site

April 12, 2025

Archaeologists working at St. Nicholas Church in Demre, Antalya, Turkey, have uncovered a limestone sarcophagus that may contain the remains of Saint Nicholas of Myra — the 4th-century bishop who inspired the legend of Santa Claus.

This exciting discovery, made beneath the historic church, has sparked global interest. Carbon dating is now underway to determine whether this could truly be the final resting place of the saint.

A Breakthrough in the Search for St. Nicholas’ Tomb

Assoc. Professor Ebru Findik takes part in the excavation efforts at St. Nicholas Church in Demre, Antalya, Türkiye, Dec. 6, 2024. (AA Photo)

Excavation work at St. Nicholas Church has been ongoing since 1989, but this recent discovery is considered one of the most significant yet. The limestone sarcophagus was found buried six meters deep, beneath a two-story annex of the church, hidden under centuries of history.

Leading the excavation, Associate Professor Ebru Fatma Findik from Hatay Mustafa Kemal University confirmed that the sarcophagus is about two meters long and features a pitched roof-style lid typical of the era’s regional designs.

Before uncovering the sarcophagus, archaeologists found fragments of clay lamps and animal bones, which strongly suggest this was a burial site.

Excavation work on the sarcophagus found at St. Nicholas Church, Demre, Antalya, Türkiye, December 6, 2024. (AA Photo)

Inscriptions Could Reveal Ancient Secrets

One of the key objectives now is to search for inscriptions that could identify the person buried within.

“Our biggest hope is to find an inscription,” said Findik. “This would help us pinpoint the exact time period and possibly confirm the identity of the individual buried here.”

So far, only a small portion of the burial chamber has been exposed, but further excavation is planned for the coming months.

Carbon Testing to Confirm the Identity

Birol Incecikoz, Director General of Cultural Assets and Museums in Turkey, told Hurriyet that scientific analysis will be essential to verify whether the sarcophagus belongs to Saint Nicholas.

“The location is promising and aligns with historical accounts,” Incecikoz explained. “We are not yet ready to declare this as the tomb of Saint Nicholas, but we are getting closer. Carbon testing and other scientific methods are being used to authenticate it.”

While the sarcophagus lid is consistent with the era, only thorough examination will confirm whether the bones inside belong to the saint who lived during the Roman Empire.

The Saint Nicholas Church in Demre, Antalya, Türkiye, August 7, 2015. (Photo via Wikimedia)

Why St. Nicholas Matters: Faith, Folklore, and History

Saint Nicholas, born in the 3rd century A.D. in Patara (part of the Lycian civilization), became the Bishop of Myra (modern-day Demre), where he gained a reputation for secret acts of generosity, particularly helping poor girls with dowries. These acts inspired the Santa Claus legend.

Nicholas passed away in 342 A.D., reportedly while imprisoned for spreading Christianity. In 1087, Italian merchants took his bones to Bari, Italy, during the Crusades. However, some sources suggest parts of his remains may still lie in Turkey today, with a fragment preserved in the Antalya Museum.

From Anatolia to the North Pole

Saint Nicholas’ transformation into Santa Claus spanned centuries and continents. In medieval Europe, his legend blended with local folklore. The Dutch referred to him as "Sint Nikolas," which eventually evolved into "Santa Claus" after Dutch settlers brought the tradition to America.

The familiar red-suited, bearded Santa emerged in the 19th century, especially through illustrations by Thomas Nast and Coca-Cola advertisements by Haddon Sundblom in the 1920s. The concept of reindeer and sleigh may even trace back to Norse myths about Odin.

UNESCO-listed Church and a Major Faith Tourism Site

A stunning drone view of St. Nicholas Church in Demre, Antalya, Türkiye. (Adobe Stock Photo)

St. Nicholas Church in Demre was added to UNESCO’s Tentative Heritage List in 2000 and remains one of Turkey’s most visited spiritual landmarks, attracting thousands of tourists annually, particularly from Russia.

As researchers await the results of carbon dating and continue their excavations, the world watches closely, hoping for confirmation of what could be the true tomb of the man behind Santa Claus.

How a Merchant, an Official, and a Chemist Smuggled Gunpowder into America in 1776

April 12, 2025

The decisive battle of the American Revolution at Saratoga in October 1777 would not have had the same outcome without the contribution of three unlikely smugglers.

“We are now without money in our treasury and without arms in our stores,” wrote George Washington, the first President of the United States and commander of the Continental Army during the American Revolution, to a trusted officer in January 1776.

Shortly after taking command of the Continental Army in July 1775, Washington ordered an inventory of the colonists' gunpowder reserves. When he learned that only 90 barrels of ammunition were available, one eyewitness claimed that Washington “didn’t speak for half an hour.”

Things hadn't changed dramatically by early 1776, and so Washington wrote this letter to express his frustration over the lack of supplies, feeling his efforts had reached a dead end.

What he didn't know was that help was already on its way.

France's Contribution

In March 1776, the Congressional Secret Correspondence Committee sent Connecticut merchant and politician Silas Deane on a mission to France, where he secretly met with Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, a confidant of King Louis XVI.

Beaumarchais, who described himself in a letter to Congress as a fervent supporter of the American revolutionaries, created a fictitious organization, Roderigue Hortalez & Company, to smuggle French, Dutch, and Spanish weapons, clothing, and other supplies to the colonists, both directly and via the West Indies. He also supplied Washington’s troops with gunpowder manufactured by Antoine Lavoisier—France's gunpowder expert.

The Best Gunpowder in Europe

In 1775, Lavoisier took control of France’s national gunpowder production. Often regarded as the founder of modern chemistry, he brought strict standards and new refining techniques to what had previously been a rudimentary and imprecise process of mixing three basic ingredients. After extensive testing, Lavoisier settled on a mixture of 75 percent saltpeter, 12.5 percent charcoal, and 12.5 percent sulfur. He later declared that the resulting French gunpowder was “the best in Europe.”

More important than its quality, however, was its availability. The Colonies lacked the industrial capacity to produce gunpowder and weapons, so they didn’t necessarily need the best material—they just needed any material.

Thanks to Beaumarchais and other sympathetic figures, they got it. By the end of 1777, France had smuggled approximately two million pounds of gunpowder and 60,000 French muskets into the Colonies—about one for every soldier in the Continental Army.

It is questionable whether the American victory at Saratoga in October 1777 would have happened—or even been possible at that specific moment in history—without these shipments.

A 6,500-year-old hunter's cache has been discovered in a cave in West Texas. Photo: University of Kansas Geological Survey.

Stunning Discovery in a Cave: 6,500-Year-Old Hunting Gear Challenges What We Know About Prehistoric People

April 12, 2025

In the rugged terrain of West Texas, a remarkable find is rewriting what we know about the prehistoric inhabitants of the region.

Deep within the San Esteban Rockshelter cave system, researchers uncovered exceptionally well-preserved hunting equipment that dates back approximately 6,500 years.

This discovery is being hailed as one of the oldest intact weapon systems ever found in North America.

The excavation was led by a team from the Big Bend National Park Research Center (CBBS), in collaboration with the University of Kansas's Odyssey Archaeological Research Center.

For years, it was believed that ancient hunter-gatherer societies in the area primarily used hunting tools with spearpoints. However, the discovery of this complete and intact set of gear allows scientists to move from theoretical assumptions to a detailed reconstruction of early technological tools.

Indigenous Hunting Tools

Among the most significant artifacts recovered were six spearpoints made of stone, used to attach arrows to a lever for throwing spears.

Also found were four axes made from deciduous wood, possibly used for applying poison, next to four worn-out arrowheads, and a rare boomerang.

Another discovery included half of a lever with its handle, worn down by time.

Devin Pettigrew, a weapons specialist and associate professor at the Big Bend National Park Research Center, noted, "We haven't found the side handle of the lever, but we know enough about this particular type to reconstruct its original form."

The preservation of these ancient Native American hunting tools is exceptional, especially considering their age.

Most archaeological finds from this period are fragmentary, making full reconstructions difficult.

Reconstructing the Original Gear

Thanks to this discovery, researchers were able to piece together nearly the entire weapon system, allowing them to imagine how the components functioned in real hunting scenarios.

Beyond the weaponry, the shelter provides fascinating insights into the lives of the people who once inhabited the region.

Archaeologists uncovered a folded, processed antelope hide that still retained its original fur, along with human feces—evidence that enriches the human context of the find.

The hide, which had holes scattered along its edges, suggests it was stretched over a frame to soften it, reflecting techniques known from the traditions of Plains Indigenous people.

The moment of discovery remains unforgettable for the excavation team. "We sat there, staring in awe at the find. It happens once in a lifetime," Pettigrew describes.

"It looks like someone folded the hide we found over the rock and left it untouched for 6,000 years."

The arrangement of broken arrowheads and the careful deposition of weapon parts suggest the shelter may have had symbolic or spiritual significance.

"These interpretations, which are based on more recent cultures, become more challenging the further back we go in time," Pettigrew notes.

The possibility that the set was purely utilitarian adds a deeper layer to our understanding of prehistoric lifestyles.

Precision and Power Weapons

Louie Bond, a researcher at Texas Parks and Wildlife magazine, explains the technical aspects of the artifacts:

"The arrowheads fit with the levers. When thrown, they follow a straight line, and the points of the axes fit into notches at the end of the main shaft."

This construction gave ancient hunters greater strength and accuracy, maximizing their chances of success in the harsh environment of ancient Texas.

These technical insights deepen our understanding of prehistoric engineering and highlight the interaction of early societies with their ecosystem—tracking, targeting, and hunting large game with complex, reusable weapons.

Bryon Schroeder, director of the Big Bend National Park Research Center, describes the find as "monumental," stressing how it fills gaps in archaeological knowledge.

"We see great snapshots of their life, sketches of their way of living, their environment, and their interaction with it," he said.

The meticulous excavation, with each artifact coming to light piece by piece, generated excitement with every new discovery.

What initially appeared to be simply the equipment of a hunter is now viewed as a window into an entire way of life shaped by innovation, adaptation, and perhaps even ritual.

As the research team continues to study the shelter, it’s expected that this discovery will continue to influence archaeological studies in North America for years to come.

Why Spartan Coins Were Much Heavier Than Those of Other Ancient Greek Cities

April 12, 2025

In ancient Sparta, nothing was left to chance. Every custom, every law, every practice served a higher purpose—discipline, self-sufficiency, and the protection of society from excess or corruption. Even Spartan currency, which today may seem like just another means of trade, was in fact one of the most powerful symbols of the city’s austerity and inward-looking values. Sparta did not wish to resemble the other city-states. It had no interest in gold, silver, or silks—and it made that abundantly clear.

Spartan coins were intentionally heavy and impractical. Made of iron instead of precious metals, these coins were bulky and difficult to transport. According to some historical accounts, they were even treated with vinegar to weaken the metal, making them brittle and unusable for melting down or resale. This was a deliberate move, serving two main purposes: to reinforce self-reliance, and to discourage the accumulation of wealth or high-value transactions that might lead to economic inequality and the rise of a wealthy elite that could threaten civic harmony.

The thinking behind this monetary policy was remarkably forward-thinking. By creating a currency so awkward and inconvenient, Sparta essentially shut down the possibility of luxury trade. Even the wealthiest merchant would struggle to carry or conceal his riches. The coin itself, by virtue of its physical burden, became a tool of social regulation and political stability.

Across the rest of the Greek world, coins were lightweight, elegant, and made from valuable materials—perfect for trade, wealth accumulation, and international commerce. But in Sparta, the very concept of wealth was viewed with suspicion, even disdain. True wealth, according to Spartan ideals, lay in virtue, military excellence, discipline, and contribution to the common good. Everything else was seen as excessive, even dangerous.

This type of currency, known as “iron money,” was not a random invention. According to the ancient writer Plutarch, it was part of the reforms of Lycurgus, Sparta’s legendary lawgiver. His legal code aimed to sever any ties to luxury or the corrupting power of money. These laws promoted collectivity, simplicity, and a deliberate inwardness—traits that made Sparta distinct among its peers.

Today, we might wonder why a society would intentionally isolate itself economically. But the answer lies in Sparta’s very identity. It was a warrior society: closed-off, hard-edged, proud, and self-reliant. Its heavy coins were more than just a medium of exchange—they were a statement:

“We don’t want your wealth. We value your character.”

The medieval buckle that was discovered.
Photo: Fran Veale/Julien Behal Photograph

Ancient Discovery on Modern Roads: 1,200-Year-Old Medieval Buckle Unearthed in Ireland

April 12, 2025

A routine highway project in Limerick, Ireland, has led to an extraordinary archaeological discovery—an intricately designed medieval buckle dating back over 1,200 years.

Uncovered by archaeologists during excavations in Ardshanbally as part of the Adare bypass construction, the buckle is a striking example of early medieval craftsmanship. Measuring just 12 centimeters long, the ornate object is made of cast brass and features deep blue glass inlay, an embossed animal motif, and abstract decorative flourishes.

From Construction Site to National Treasure

The buckle is one of more than 100 artifacts that will soon be showcased at the National Museum of Ireland in an upcoming exhibition titled “Echoes from the Wave: Ireland and St. Gallen in Early Medieval Europe.” Opening on May 29, the exhibit will explore the rich cultural exchanges between early medieval Ireland and the European continent.

Among the highlights will be manuscripts from the Abbey of St. Gall in present-day Switzerland—some of which will return to Ireland for the first time in over a millennium.

A Testament to Ancient Craftsmanship

Ireland’s Minister for Culture, Patrick O’Donovan, who visited the museum on Thursday to view the buckle and other recent finds, described the artifact as “an exceptional discovery.”

“The buckle is beautifully crafted and dates back over a thousand years. It highlights the extraordinary skill, artistry, and wealth that existed in the Limerick region even in the early medieval period,” said O’Donovan.

Lynn Scarff, Director of the National Museum of Ireland, praised the collaborative efforts behind the discovery, emphasizing how public access to cultural heritage is strengthened through responsible archaeology.

“This early medieval buckle from Ardshanbally is a perfect example of how state agencies and professional archaeologists can work together to preserve and share Ireland’s rich material heritage,” she said.

She also noted the significance of discovering the buckle in a controlled excavation context, allowing for more accurate dating of Ireland’s metallurgical traditions, particularly in the Limerick area.

Uncovering the Layers of History

The medieval buckle that was unearthed.
Photo: Fran Veale/Julien Behal Photography

This find adds to a growing list of remarkable discoveries made during the expansion of the Foynes to Limerick road. Just last year, archaeologists revealed a network of World War II-era defensive structures—roughly 300 in total—that had been built in the early years of Ireland’s wartime state of emergency, declared in 1939 to maintain the country's neutrality.

These layered discoveries—from medieval artifacts to 20th-century fortifications—paint a vivid picture of Ireland’s enduring and evolving relationship with its land, its people, and its past.

The Yorck Project/Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain

Inside the Royal Lineage of the Ottoman Empire: A Diverse Legacy of Power, Politics, and Heritage

April 12, 2025

When we think of royal dynasties, we often imagine long lines of pure ancestry and tightly controlled family trees. But the story of the Ottoman Empire’s sultans tells a far more fascinating—and multicultural—tale. Stretching from the late 13th century until the early 20th, the Ottoman Empire was a global powerhouse. Its sultans, though rooted in the Central Asian Oghuz Turkic tribes, became a living reflection of the vast and diverse empire they ruled.

The Harem: More Than a Palace Mystery

Often romanticized in art and literature, the harem was much more than a secluded part of the palace. It was, in many ways, the political heart of the empire. At its center were the sultan’s concubines—many of whom played critical roles in shaping the empire's future.

In the Ottoman world, a concubine was typically a woman who lived with a man and had a sexual relationship with him without being married. Most concubines in the imperial harem came from non-Turkic, often non-Muslim backgrounds—Greek, Serbian, Ukrainian, Polish, Italian, and more. They were either enslaved or given as part of political alliances. Because Islamic law forbids enslaving Muslims, these women were usually Christians or Jews from within the empire’s far-reaching territories.

But life in the harem was not necessarily one of passive servitude. A concubine who bore a son that eventually became sultan could ascend to a powerful position as Valide Sultan (Mother Sultan), often acting as regent and wielding considerable influence over imperial policy, court affairs, and succession.

The Evolution of the Sultans' Heritage

The first Ottoman ruler, Osman I, was fully Turkic. So was his son, Orhan. But as the empire expanded and integrated different regions, the family tree began to reflect this changing landscape.

From the third sultan onward, we see a pattern: sultans with mothers of various ethnic backgrounds. Murad I’s mother was Greek. Bayezid I also had a Greek mother. And the trend continued—Polish, Venetian, Georgian, Ukrainian, French, Hungarian, Albanian—the list is a true cultural mosaic.

By the time we arrive at the empire’s final ruler, Mehmed VI (r. 1918–1922), the once-pure Turkic lineage had become thoroughly mixed. While paternity remained in the Ottoman line, the maternal ancestry of the sultans mirrored the empire’s vast and diverse reach.

A Snapshot of Ottoman Royal Mothers’ Ethnic Origins

Here’s a glimpse into the maternal lineage of some of the empire’s most notable sultans:

Osman I – Turkish
Murad I – Greek
Bayezid I – Greek
Selim II – Polish
Murad III & Mehmed III – Italian (Venetian)
Ahmed I – Greek
Mehmed IV – Ukrainian
Ahmed II – Polish
Mustafa III – French
Selim III – Georgian
Abdulhamid II – Possibly Armenian or Russian
Mehmed VI – Georgian

This blending of cultures didn't dilute the Ottoman identity—it enhanced it. The empire’s elite were a product of centuries of diplomatic marriages, strategic alliances, and cultural integration.

More Than Bloodlines: A Symbol of Empire-Wide Influence

What this complex heritage shows is that the Ottoman Empire was never just a Turkish empire—it was a global one. Its sultans were the embodiment of a multicultural, multiethnic power that stretched across continents. From the forests of Eastern Europe to the deserts of the Middle East, and from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, the legacy of the Ottoman dynasty is as diverse and layered as the empire itself.

In the end, the story of the sultans’ ancestry isn’t just a tale of who ruled whom. It’s a testament to how interconnected the world has always been—and how power, influence, and identity are often shaped by those quietly working behind palace walls.

5 + 2 Things You Didn't Know About the Ancient Maya Civilization

April 10, 2025

The Maya were exceptional astronomers and developed advanced calendars to track time.

The ancient Maya civilization is shrouded in mystery, yet it remains a benchmark for numerous significant achievements in mathematics, architecture, and astronomical knowledge.

Before the Spanish conquest of Mexico, the Maya had developed the most brilliant civilization in the Western Hemisphere. They practiced agriculture, were formidable warriors, built imposing pyramids and temples, and had knowledge of the concept of the number zero.

In addition, they worked with copper and gold, knew the art of weaving, and used a form of hieroglyphic writing. The roots of the Maya civilization date back to prehistoric times, beyond 2000 BC, corresponding to the Archaic period.

The Maya continue to impress and remain a subject of study for archaeologists and historians to this day.

Here are 7 things you may not know about the ancient Latin American civilization.

1. They Were Exceptional Astronomers

The Maya were exceptional astronomers and developed advanced calendars for tracking time. They had a cyclical perception of time and believed that at the end of each pictun cycle (about 7,885 years), the world would be destroyed and recreated. This belief caused confusion thirteen years ago when some incorrectly interpreted the Maya calendar, claiming that the world would end on December 21, 2012.

However, scientists pointed out that the calendar used by the ancient civilization did not predict the end of the world—it simply marked the end of one cycle and the beginning of another. The Maya also used the Tzolkin calendar (260 days) and the Haab calendar (365 days, divided into 18 months of 20 days and one month of 5 days), which allowed them to predict solar and lunar eclipses with great accuracy. The Maya often determined dates by using both calendars together. Dates in this form would only repeat every 52 solar years.

2. Their Complex Writing System

The Maya developed one of the most complex writing systems of the ancient world, using a form of hieroglyphic writing. For centuries, scientists struggled to decipher it, as it combined symbols representing entire words and syllables.

In the mid-20th century, Russian linguist Yuri Knorozov and other researchers managed to understand their distinctive writing system. Today, scientists can read most of the surviving Maya texts, revealing details about their history, religion, and daily life.

3. They Used Zero in Mathematics

The concept of zero was unknown to most ancient civilizations, but the Maya had invented a special symbol for zero, resembling a shell. Their numerical system was based on the vigesimal system (base 20). Thanks to this innovation, they were able to perform complex calculations, primarily for astronomical and calendrical purposes.

4. They Were Made Up of Independent City-States

Unlike other great civilizations like the Aztecs and Incas, the Maya did not have a single state with a central ruler. Instead, they were made up of independent city-states, such as Tikal, located in the tropical forest of northern Guatemala, Palenque (formerly known as Lacamha), and Copán, in western Honduras.

Each city had its own king (known as Kʼuhul ajaw), who was considered a "divine leader" and ruled with the help of nobles and priests.

5. They Practiced Painful Infant Skull Modifications

The Maya regarded elongated skulls as a symbol of beauty and prestige. To achieve this, they placed special wooden frames on infants' heads, pressing their skulls to give them an elongated shape. This practice was particularly common among the upper social classes and likely had religious significance, as the Maya associated elongated skulls with the forms of their gods.

6. Most Cities Were Abandoned Before the Spanish Conquest

Although the Spanish conquest contributed to the collapse of the Maya civilization, many of their great cities had already been abandoned centuries earlier. The reasons for the decline of the cities (around 800-1000 AD) remain uncertain, but scientists speculate that it was due to a mix of political and environmental factors (such as drought, climate change, and internal conflicts).

However, the Maya civilization never fully disappeared. Most modern Maya live in Guatemala, Belize, and the western parts of Honduras and El Salvador, as well as large sections of the Mexican states of Yucatán, Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, and Chiapas.

7. They Played a Ball Game Without Using Their Hands

The Maya played a complex ball game (known as pok-ta-pok or pitz) in large arenas. Players could use all parts of their bodies (elbows, shoulders) but not their hands to bounce a heavy rubber ball (estimated to weigh 4 kg), trying to pass it through a stone ring positioned vertically on the sides of the arena.

The game had religious and political dimensions, and in some cases, the losers might have been sacrificed to the gods.

The Maya civilization continues to intrigue and educate, leaving behind remarkable achievements that still captivate us today.

Aerial photograph of the excavation site in Italy, Metropolitan Archaeology Supervision of the Naples Area.

Significant Ancient Mausoleum with Gladiator Inscription Discovered in Italy

April 10, 2025

An important ancient mausoleum featuring a gladiator inscription has been discovered in Italy, shedding new light on the rich history of the region.

Aerial photography of the excavation site in Italy, Metropolitan Archaeology Supervision of the Naples Area.

A noteworthy necropolis has been unearthed in southern Italy, specifically in the Campania region. Excavations at the well-known Roman colony of Liternum revealed this necropolis, which includes the tomb of a gladiator, complete with an inscription dedicated to him.

The mausoleum with the inscription is located in the present-day municipality of Giuliano in Campania. The site dates back to the first century BC and was used as a final resting place for prominent gladiators.

According to a statement from the Archaeological Supervision of the Metropolitan Area of Naples, the evaluation of the site and the recovery of coins, lamps, and ceramics has provided new insights into how burial customs evolved throughout the history of the Roman Empire.

The necropolis at Liternum consisted of two burial enclosures, covering a total area of about 450 square meters, surrounded by white and gray boulders with red details.

The deceased were buried in various ways, including urn burials within approximately 20 plastered niches, large ossuaries, and enclosures on the floor sealed with roof tiles.

Among the discoveries were several marble cenotaphs, some of which remained intact, as well as the cenotaph of the gladiator with the corresponding inscription. The latter highlights the value and remembrance of these fighters in Roman society, according to a statement from the Archaeological Supervision.

The cenotaph in the Campania region, Metropolitan Area of Naples Archaeological Supervision.

The cenotaph in the Campania area. Photo credit: Archaeological Supervision of the Metropolitan Area of Naples.

Its presence at Liternum suggests that the city was home to gladiators who, after their glorious careers in the arena, found their resting place there.

"The Giuliano area is experiencing an extraordinary period of discoveries, first with the tomb of Cerberus and now with this necropolis," said Superintendent Mariano Nuccio. "The quality of the structures and their excellent state of preservation enrich our understanding of the history of the Liternum colony and deepen the study of the socio-cultural context of the time."

Excavations are ongoing, and it is likely that more findings will emerge, shedding further light on Liternum’s location along the Via Domitiana, a road that led from Rome to Campania and was known to be lined with tombs.

Smithsonian: Director of the African American Museum Resigns Following Pressure from Republicans

April 10, 2025

Kevin Young, director of the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture, has resigned after four years in the position, according to an announcement from the museum.

In the statement, the museum noted that Young expressed his desire to focus on his writing career. He remains a poetry editor at The New Yorker.

His departure comes at a time when former President Donald Trump has targeted the Smithsonian institution and the National Museum of African American History and Culture with an executive order. However, Young had already taken a leave of absence prior to the issuance of the order – The Washington Post reported that he took personal leave on March 14.

The original leave was reportedly for an indefinite period, according to the Post. In recent weeks, Sanita Brackett, the museum’s deputy director of operations, had been serving as interim director. On Friday, the museum confirmed Young’s departure.

“We remain committed to telling the multifaceted stories of this country’s remarkable heritage,” said Kevin Young.

Kevin Young’s Appointment and Tenure
When Young was appointed in 2020, he was the director of the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, part of the New York Public Library, and poetry editor at The New Yorker. He began working at the museum in 2021 and continued as poetry editor at The New Yorker throughout his tenure, never taking a leave of absence from the magazine.

The museum, which opened in 2016, was built on the National Mall with the mission to tell the story of African Americans to the American public. Young was the second director of the museum, succeeding Lonnie Bunch, who became the Smithsonian’s secretary in 2019, the institution’s highest position.

Trump’s Executive Order
At the Smithsonian, Young found himself leading an institution facing both political and academic challenges. Last month, President Trump issued an executive order calling for the reorganization of the Smithsonian, aiming to transform it into a “symbol of inspiration and American greatness.” The order specifically singled out the African American History Museum, sparking speculation that it could face particular scrutiny from the government.

In the order titled “Restoring Truth and Logic in American History,” Trump targeted what he described as a “revisionist movement” across the country, which “seeks to undermine the remarkable achievements of the United States by casting its founding principles and historical landmarks in a negative light.”

The order argued that the Smithsonian, in particular, had been “influenced by a divisive, race-centered ideology” and promoted “narratives that present American and Western values as inherently harmful and oppressive.”

Lonnie Bunch and Future Pressures
The executive order presents a challenge for Bunch, who was not informed of the decision beforehand. While he has not publicly commented, he sent an email to Smithsonian employees last week expressing his intent to remain steadfast, saying, “We remain committed to telling the multifaceted stories of this country’s remarkable heritage.”

Indications of the pressure Bunch might face from the Trump administration in the future surfaced when White House Communications Director Steven Chang referred to Bunch as a “failure” in a statement earlier this week, according to The New York Times.

“Leftist Indoctrination”
The museum opened with strong bipartisan support, but it has faced criticism from some Republicans, as race and diversity are contentious issues. In a 2023 Congressional hearing with Bunch, some Republicans accused the Smithsonian of “leftist indoctrination.”

During Bunch’s tenure, the museum organized a series of high-profile exhibitions with strong artistic and cultural significance, including “Reckoning,” an exhibition on Black art and protest that opened in 2021, and “Afrofuturism,” which opened in 2023.

Sources: New York Times, New York Post

The mosaic found in the monastery (Photo: Nir-Shimshon Paran, Atiqot)

1,500-Year-Old Mosaic Discovered in Abandoned Byzantine Monastery – Greek Inscription and Rural Dwelling

April 10, 2025

In a remarkable archaeological find, a 1,500-year-old Byzantine monastery, remarkably well-preserved, and an impressive mosaic in its chapel have been uncovered by archaeologists. Along with other important finds, such as a Greek inscription, the discoveries provide invaluable insights into life in the 6th century.

A recent excavation report released by the Israel Antiquities Authority revealed the discovery of a well-preserved Byzantine-era monastery and a rural dwelling in the Naḥal Peḥar area, in what is now the Giv‘ot Bar settlement, south of Be'er Sheva.

According to Nir-Shimshon Paran, the lead archaeologist of the excavation, "The monastery is exceptionally well-preserved and offers a glimpse into the daily lives of the monks in the Negev Desert during the Byzantine period. It featured rudimentary mosaic floors, which may have been laid by the monks themselves."

"Most of the finds in the monastery were discovered on the floors, revealing the site's abandonment during the later Byzantine period and the early Umayyad Caliphate (6th to 7th century AD)," Paran notes.

The archaeologists believe the monastery was likely abandoned as the region transitioned to the early Islamic period, due to diminished security. The monastery complex includes a chapel, a dining hall, kitchen, auxiliary wings, and a wine press. "The main building had sturdy walls, giving it the appearance of a fortified structure," the excavation study explains.

The Greek Inscription

Archaeologists discovered a well-preserved Byzantine monastery in Israel. (Source: Israel Antiquities Authority).

One of the most striking discoveries was a unique mosaic found in the chapel. "At the center of the mosaic, there is a Maltese Cross, and beneath it, within a frame, is a three-line Greek inscription that names the monastery and four monks who lived there," the study explains.

Nearby rooms contain evidence of the daily life of the monastery. Paran notes that a conical hollow in the mosaic may have been used to hold vessels. Among the finds, there are ceramics dating to 460–475 AD and a pot from the late 5th to 7th century.

In an arched area lined with stones, two tombs were uncovered. "At the eastern edge of the southern tomb, a cross was engraved," according to Paran. "Other objects, such as a fallen shrine façade pillar, a copper hook, chains, and glass oil lamps, suggest that the area was used for functional purposes."

Wine Production Workshop and Inscriptions

The kitchen was identified by a 10-centimeter-thick layer of ash, indicating that it was a cooking area, complete with tables. "Under the table, the lower half of a storage jar was sunk into the floor, possibly used as an oven (ṭabun)," the study reports.

The monastery also housed a wine production workshop. "In the northeastern part of the auxiliary sections, a winepress floor (5.7 × 6.0 m) was uncovered, sloping to the south." The excavation revealed a plastered trench for fermentation and settling of the must, as well as a possible storage tank.

The discovered inscriptions include two epitaphs written in red-brown ink, verifying that the site was used for burial.

The Rural Dwelling

A Greek inscription names the monastery and four monks. (Photo: Israel Antiquities Authority).

Archaeologists also uncovered a rural dwelling from the same period, located just south of the monastery. One structure included a rectangular watchtower with a small room. On the floor, a coin was found dating to the first half of the 6th century AD.

"The monastery and the farmhouse were contemporary... it seems that both structures were abandoned at the end of the Byzantine period (late 6th to early 7th century AD)," Paran notes.

The findings were published in volume 116 of the journal Atiqot by the Israel Antiquities Authority.

This discovery sheds light on the monastic life of the desert in the region over 1,400 years ago, offering valuable evidence of the daily lives of the monks who lived there during the Byzantine period.

A 2,900-Year-Old Stele Reveals the Roots of Greek Mythology – The Storm God Standing on a Bull

April 10, 2025

In 1987, O. Günay made a chance discovery of a significant archaeological find while plowing his field near the village of Yurtlak, just a few kilometers west of the city of Erzin in Turkey's Hatay province, with Antioch as its capital.

The remarkable find, a basalt stele cataloged as number 17183 in the Hatay Archaeological Museum, is broken in two but still retains its historical and artistic value, providing valuable insights into ancient mythologies.

The Erzin Stele and Its Symbolism

The base of the Erzin stele features a protrusion, indicating that it was originally positioned horizontally on a pedestal, adding depth to its architectural context.

With this protrusion, the stele stands at an impressive height of 0.96 meters, with a width of 0.46 meters and a thickness of 0.16 meters.

The front of the stele depicts a highly weathered bas-relief of the Storm God in his characteristic stance, standing imposingly on a bull.

In his left hand, the god holds a double axe, a symbol of strength and power, while in his right hand, he wields a lightning bolt, representing his divine connection to storms and weather.

The Storm God

Sketch of the stele. Photo: Ensert, et al., 2008.

A unique feature of this depiction is that the god is grasping a snake by the neck, a deviation from the traditional representations of the Storm God.

The body of the snake coils around the god, with its tail rising toward the left side, suggesting a dynamic struggle between the two figures.

This scene likely represents the battle between the Storm God and the serpent, a motif that appears in both Anatolian and Syrian mythology.

The struggle between the Storm God and the serpent is a recurring theme in the myths of the ancient Near East, symbolizing the conflict between order and chaos.

Common Mythological Motifs of the Hurrians and Hittites

In the Hurrian myth of Hedammu, a giant serpent named Hedammu lives in the ocean and is eventually defeated by the Storm God, who is associated with fertility and rain. Similarly, the myth of the Hittite serpent-dragon Illuyanka tells of a serpent that must be vanquished by the Storm God, highlighting the significance of this motif in the region's mythology.

Embodiment of Nature's Elements

Above the Storm God, a partially damaged symbol of a winged sun disk is visible, emphasizing his divine nature and connection to celestial forces.

This specific iconography is significant because it links the Storm God with solar deities, a common practice in ancient cultures where gods embodied multiple aspects of nature.

The presence of the disk and the winged sun suggests a possible connection to later Greek mythology, where similar motifs appear, particularly in the representations of gods such as the Sun and Apollo.

Experts date the stele to the 9th or 8th century BCE, situating it in a crucial period of ancient history characterized by the flourishing of the Hittite civilization and its interactions with neighboring cultures.

The Hittites are known for their rich mythology and complex pantheon, and the stele serves as a valuable artifact shedding light on their beliefs and artistic expressions.

The Transition from Hittite to Greek Mythology

Photo: ENSERT, H., Görmüş, A., & Kara, D. (2008). The Stele of Erzin. Adalya, (11).

The transition from Hittite mythological themes to Greek culture is particularly noteworthy, as it underscores the cultural interactions of the region over time.

The discovery of the Erzin stele highlights the importance of archaeological study in uncovering the rich mosaic of human history.

Each artifact tells a story, just like the stele.

It invites us to reflect on the beliefs, struggles, and artistic achievements of our ancestors, reminding us of the timeless legacy of ancient civilizations. As scholars and history enthusiasts delve into the significance of these finds, we are constantly reminded of the interaction of human experience across time and space.

The Erzin Stele stands out as a bridge between the past and the present, inspiring us to think about the narratives and myths that have shaped our worldview to this day.

The continuous study of artifacts such as the Erzin stele enriches our knowledge of ancient societies while inspiring us to admire the complexities of human faith and creativity throughout history.

As we explore the connections between Hittite and Greek mythologies, we gain a deeper appreciation for how the ancients understood the world and the divine forces that influenced their lives.

Finally, the Erzin Stele is not just another artifact.

It is proof of the rich mythological traditions of the ancient Near East and their enduring influence on later cultures, including the Greek civilization.

The themes of struggle, power, and divine intervention depicted on the stele remain timeless, reminding us of the collective human experience in grappling with the forces of nature and the unknown.

As we continue to uncover and study such artifacts, we enrich our understanding of the past and its relationship with the present and future.