A Journey Back in Time: The Impressive Wooden Model of the Minoan Palace of Knossos at the Heraklion Archaeological Museum

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The impressive wooden model representing the Palace of Knossos during the Neopalatial period (1750 BC–1450 BC) at the Heraklion Archaeological Museum is the work of Zacharias S. Kanakis, conservator of the Archaeological Society of Athens, 1968.

The Heraklion Archaeological Museum in Crete, Greece, is home to one of the world's most impressive representations of the ancient Minoan civilization. Among its wide array of historical artifacts and exhibits, one item stands out remarkably for its exquisite craftsmanship and historical significance: the wooden model of the Palace of Knossos. Depicting the edifice during the Neopalatial period (1750 BC–1450 BC), this model provides us with an incredible visual journey into the world of our distant past.

Knossos, the center of Minoan civilization, was an intricate complex believed to be the mythical labyrinth of King Minos, housing the terrifying Minotaur in Greek mythology. The palace, a vibrant manifestation of the high point of Minoan architecture, culture, and power, sprawled across an area of approximately 22,000 square meters. It was characterized by its complex labyrinthine layout, extensive storerooms, grand courtyards, and vibrant frescoes.

The wooden model in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum vividly brings this architectural marvel back to life. It painstakingly replicates every minute detail of the palace, from its meandering passageways and grand courtyards to its royal apartments and sanctuaries. This representation does not merely rest on aesthetic considerations; it represents an archaeological accomplishment. The model has been designed based on extensive archaeological findings and studies of the site, making it an accurate depiction of the Palace of Knossos as it would have stood in its heyday.

What makes the model so striking is its intricate attention to detail, which captures the complexity and grandeur of the palace. It shows the innovative architectural characteristics of the Minoans, such as light wells, multiple levels, and open-air courtyards. The miniature version of the grand staircase, which leads to the royal apartments, draws particular attention. Furthermore, it depicts the various chambers, including workshops, storerooms filled with massive pithoi (storage jars), and the Throne Room, highlighting the palace's multifaceted functionality.

The model also does an excellent job of showcasing the Minoan's affinity for nature and their ingenuity in integrating it into their structures. The palace was designed around a central courtyard, as shown in the model, and had many open areas and porticoes that allowed sunlight to pour in, a characteristic feature of Minoan architecture.

Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The representation is mainly based on the ruins of the second phase of the new palace, which date to the 16th century BC. The palace of Knossos is divided into several sections, each of which has a separate use. It was multi-story, built with hewn buildings, and decorated with magnificent frescoes that probably depicted religious ceremonies. Access was through three entrances located on its north, west, and south sides. Four wings develop around the central courtyard. Thus, on the west side of the palace, there are concentrated the ceremonial rooms on the upper floors, the public storerooms (18 long, narrow rooms) with the large jars, the sanctuaries, and the treasuries, as well as the throne room consisting of the vestibule and the main throne area. In the south-west part of the palace are the Western Court and the Western Entrance leading to the Corridor of Pompeii, which was decorated with frescoes ("Prince with the Lilies"). On the left side of the corridor are the Propylaia and the famous Double Horns (Dedication Horns), one of the sacred symbols of the Minoan religion. The first excavations in the area of ​​Knossos were carried out in 1878 by the merchant Minoas Kalokairinos.

Visitors to the museum are invariably drawn to this mesmerizing display. They marvel at the sheer scale and intricacy of the Palace of Knossos, brought to life through the meticulous work of the creators of this model. This wooden marvel serves as a tangible link to our shared past, providing insight into a civilization that continues to captivate us centuries after its decline.

The wooden model of the Palace of Knossos at the Heraklion Archaeological Museum is not just a detailed replica; it's an architectural narrative that takes us back in time. It is a testament to the extraordinary civilization that the Minoans were, their advancements in architecture, their deep-seated respect for nature, and their artistic expressions, all rendered in exquisite detail. This immersive experience serves as a reminder of the fascinating journey of human civilization and the wonders that our ancestors were capable of creating.

A Mycenaean Pirate Ship in Egypt?: Understanding Bronze Age Greek-Egyptian Maritime Relations through the "Gurob Ship Model"

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Gurob Ship Model: An Insight into Bronze Age Maritime Technology and Greek-Egyptian Interactions

Known as the Gurob Ship Model, or alternatively as 'Odysseus' Boat', this striking ancient artifact has been instrumental in shedding light on the maritime culture and technology of the Bronze Age civilizations. Discovered at the archaeological site of Gurob in Egypt, this intricate ship model provides an insight into the relationship between the Bronze Age Greeks and Egyptians, symbolizing the interconnectedness and shared technological advancements of these ancient societies.

The Gurob Ship Model: A Prototype of Ancient Galleys

Unearthed in the late 19th century, the Gurob Ship Model dates between the mid-13th and mid-11th centuries BC, during Egypt’s New Kingdom period. Measuring 28 inches in length, this wooden model encapsulates the advanced maritime technology of the time, exhibiting features that were later prominent in Greek and Egyptian galleys.

It was found in a shallow tomb in Gurob, Middle Egypt, close to the Faiyum oasis, in 1920. The model was incorrectly assembled twice, but Flinders Petrie, who oversaw its excavation, perceptively named it a "Pirate Boat" because it had been paired with a pavois and a wheeled cart in antiquity, probably indicating that it had been used as a cult object.

A possible Aegean Type VI ship is also represented in an Egyptian wooden model from a tomb at Gurob dated between the 13th and 12th centuries BC. University College London, Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UC16044 Images Courtesy of the J. Paul Getty Museum and the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology

The small model was "rediscovered" in the Petrie Egyptological Museum around the turn of the millennium and published by Shelley Wachsmann in 2013. Wachsmann identified the model as representing a Helladic oared galley of the type known from the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean. Petrie had made two brief mentions of the model (in 1927 and 1933), after which it was largely forgotten.

The invention of the galley was a turning point in ship architecture because it gave sailors a level of mobility on the water never before possible. The Helladic galley, which spread throughout the Eastern Mediterranean and eventually gave rise to both the Phoenician bireme and the Greek dieres, played a crucial role in the Iron Age exploration, expansion, and colonization of these societies.

The Gurob model, which spans the mid-13th and mid-11th centuries BC, is the only polychromatic representation discovered to date and the most thorough three-dimensional evidence we have for this significant vessel form. As a result, it confirms a lot of what has been hypothesized about these vessels while also offering new information about their construction and decoration, such as the use of color, which previously could only be gleaned from Homeric epithets like "black" and "dark-prowed" as well as the less well-known "red-cheeked" and "purple-cheeked" descriptors. The latter are solely employed in the Homeric epics to identify Odysseus's ships, and the Gurob ship-distinctive cart's polychromatic character makes it possible to comprehend them much more fully than in the past. We can clearly see what Homer meant when he described his ships as "black": he is referring to the pitch seen on the model's ship hull.

Building a virtual 3D model of the Gurob model revealed many secrets. Manipulate the 3D virtual model here, and see more virtual models of the Gurob ship-cart here.

The Gurob model is discussed in this article, along with its importance for our comprehension of Mycenaean sailing and Homeric ship descriptions. A special focus is placed on framing Odysseus' maritime journey to Egypt, which is vividly described in the hero's "second Cretan Lie," within the larger context of the epic's fictive date in the Late Bronze-Early Iron Age transition. The design, spread, and influences of the Helladic oared galley are also discussed in their internationalist Eastern Mediterranean context.

The ship model portrays a vessel with a high sternpost and stempost, both terminating in volutes, a characteristic of later Mycenaean ship designs. With a large single mast, a steering oar, and 17 rows of oar holes on each side, the model offers a glimpse into the construction of oared ships, which eventually evolved into the galleys that were widely used by ancient Mediterranean civilizations. It can be related to European cultic prototypes because it was discovered with four wheels and other traces of a wagon-like support structure. The model might be based on a galley from that culture, according to contemporaneous written evidence that Sherden—one of the Sea Peoples—settled in the area. Hence, despite being discovered in Egypt, the Gurob model's prototype was unmistakably an Aegean-style galley of the kind that both the Mycenaeans and the Sea Peoples utilized.

The four wheels. Courtesy of the Petrie Egyptological Museum. Photo: S. Wachsmann

Scholars have established the significance of the Sea Peoples as a driving force behind maritime innovation in Egypt in a number of significant publications. While a number of novel features, such as the loose-footed, brailed sail and the top-mounted crow's nest, were already well known in the Levant by the fourteenth century BC, it appears that the Sherden were the first to fully appreciate their military potential, particularly when combined with the new (Aegean?) type of war galley, such as that represented by the ship model from Gurob. Early in Ramesses II's reign, the first Sea Peoples were encountered, and it wasn't until then that Egyptian shipwrights began to see the importance of innovations and begin incorporating them into their own designs.

Many Egyptian reliefs from the 19th Dynasty show the transition. While Egyptian ships at the time of Ramesses II's first encounters with the Sherden were typically Egyptian, those used by Ramesses III (as depicted on the walls of his temple at Medinet Habu) are remarkably similar to those of their enemies, featuring a top-mounted crow's nest and a loose-footed, brailed sail, despite still being based on Egyptian riverine ships rather than the Aegean galley. So, despite the destruction the Sea Peoples caused, their entrance in Egypt is also linked to a number of incredible advances in ship construction that greatly influenced the shipbuilding traditions in Greece and Phoenicia in the millennia that followed.

Gurob Ship Model and the Mycenaean Type VI "Tragana Cluster" Ship

The vessels on the pyxis from Tragana and the larnax from Gazi are the best examples of the innovative hull-form the Achaeans devised by continuing the keel into a spur extending beyond the straight sternpost. The shape is largely that of a Skyros vessel, with the addition of a spur. Both types share the loose-footed sail that was popular at the end of the Late Bronze Age but not attested for Minoan ships.

A typical Type VI Late Achaean ship is represented on a pyxis from the Tragana Tholos tomb near Pylos, dated LH IIIC (about 1200 BC). It is a long, lean ship with a low gunwale, equipped with a ram as on the Middle Helladic Iolkos fragments but more swift-looking and narrow. It is probably meant to represent a warship or one suited to pirate raids, not a merchantman. The mast is centered, with an oval sail whose form is more influenced by the filled concentric arcs on the ornamental panels of the pyxis than by marine facts.

The keel is flat, and the sterpost is normally straight with a minor curve at the connection. This must have amounted to a total redesign of the bow, a process that, given the conservatism typical of shipbuilders, was undoubtedly conducted with a specific goal in mind, with an eye toward a net improvement in performance. One possible explanation for this development is the ability to beach quickly without harming the bow. Any argument that the spur can be used as a ram is false since, in each instance, the stempost extends past the spur, raising the possibility of the ramming ship suffering damage.

A Type VI large ship with large sail and several oars is represented in this larnax from Crete dated around 12th century BC.

The Gurob Ship Model and the Mycenaean Type VI "Tragana Cluster" ship share several striking similarities. Both vessels feature a high sternpost and stempost, terminating in volutes. This detail not only serves an aesthetic purpose but also illustrates the advanced naval technology of the time.

Additionally, the presence of multiple rows of oar holes on both models suggests the use of oars for propulsion, a key characteristic of Mediterranean galleys. The oars allowed these ships to navigate independently of the wind, enabling more predictable sea voyages and greater control during warfare.

A possible Type VI large ship could be also the one visible in few fresco fragments from the Orchomenos Palace dated LH IIIB

The similarities extend to the single mast found on both ship types, indicating the use of sails for long-distance travel. This blend of oar and sail power reflects the dual utility of these vessels for both warfare and trade.

Tracing the Evolution of Galleys in the MEDITERRANEAN

While the classic Greek galleys only emerged around the 8th century BCE, the Gurob Ship Model serves as a prototype, showcasing key elements of galley design nearly seven centuries earlier. Galleys, propelled primarily by oars and recognized for their elongated hulls, became a common sight across the Mediterranean, utilized by both Greek and Egyptian societies.

Hull shapes in Bronze Age Aegean

The development from the Gurob design to the Greek galleys likely occurred through gradual adaptations that catered to the needs of different cultures and maritime environments. This evolutionary process highlights the interconnectedness and shared technological advancements of the ancient Mediterranean civilizations.

Bronze-Age Aegean Sea Power

The Aegean Sea was a hub of powerful civilizations during the Bronze Age, particularly the Minoans and Mycenaeans. The Minoans, centered on Crete, are widely considered the first advanced civilization in Europe. They constructed a formidable fleet of ships, controlling the maritime routes in the Aegean Sea and engaging in far-reaching trade networks that extended to Egypt, the Levant, and beyond.

The Mycenaeans, who emerged after the Minoans, continued this tradition of maritime power. The rugged and fragmented terrain of their homeland in mainland Greece led them to rely heavily on the sea for commerce, conflict, and exploration. The Mycenaean ships, which are thought to be represented in the Gurob Ship Model or the so-called 'Odysseus' Boat', were central to their military prowess and economic prosperity.

Bronze Age Fresco in Akrotiri, Santorini

This Aegean sea power played a significant role in the widespread cultural interactions of the Bronze Age, connecting the distant corners of the Mediterranean world. The resulting exchange of goods, ideas, and technology not only facilitated the evolution of shipbuilding techniques but also influenced several aspects of these societies, including their art, architecture, and religion. The sea was not just a route for transportation; it was the lifeblood of these vibrant, interconnected civilizations.

Recreation of a ship from the Minoan fleet sailing in the high seas.

Alessandro Berio

Greek-Egyptian Interactions in the Bronze Age

The Gurob Ship Model, or 'Odysseus' Boat, offers valuable insights into the complex relationship between the Bronze Age Greeks and Egyptians. The two societies enjoyed robust connections, engaging in extensive trade and diplomatic exchanges and sharing various elements of their cultures, including religious beliefs, art, and maritime technology.

Evidence of these interactions is visible not only in the design of the Gurob Ship Model but also in the archaeological findings of Mycenaean pottery in Egypt and Egyptian artifacts in Greece. Textual evidence further corroborates this, with references to Keftiu (believed to be ancient Crete or the Aegean) in Egyptian records, signifying an active network between these civilizations.

Navigating the Past

Not only does the Gurob Ship Model, or 'Odysseus' Boat', exemplify the advanced seafaring capabilities of the ancient civilizations, it also presents a tangible connection to our shared global heritage. As we unravel the intricate details of this model, we step into the past, a time when the Mediterranean was a vibrant hub of cultural and technological exchanges.

The Gurob Ship Model mirrors the maritime evolution of Bronze Age societies, reflecting their ingenuity and resilience. It tells us of the explorations and journeys made across vast, treacherous seas, paving the way for the spread of ideas and commodities. Its existence underscores the importance of intercultural dialogue, even in ancient times, as it was these exchanges that led to significant advancements in shipbuilding and navigational techniques.

Moreover, the similarities between the Gurob Ship Model and the Mycenaean Type VI "Tragana Cluster" ship hint at a shared vision of seafaring between these ancient societies. This interconnectedness further strengthens the model's status as a symbol of unity and mutual growth in a time characterized by isolation due to geographical boundaries.

In essence, the Gurob Ship Model is more than a historical artifact—it is a gateway to the past, a testament to human ingenuity, and a symbol of the age-old spirit of exploration and exchange that continues to shape our world today. Through this model, we are reminded of our collective roots and the remarkable history of maritime civilizations whose legacy still lingers in the vessels that navigate our seas today.

The Minoan Double Axe Symbol: Origins, Archaeological Evidence, and Religious Context

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Minoan civilization, one of the earliest known civilizations of the Bronze Age, flourished on the island of Crete from around 3000 to 1100 BCE. Known for their advanced urban planning, stunning frescoes, and fascinating symbolic scripts, the Minoans are particularly remembered for their potent and compelling symbolism. One of the most recognized symbols of the Minoan civilization is the double axe, also known as the "Labrys." This article will delve into the intricacies of the Minoan double axe symbol, exploring its archaeological findings, ritualistic use, and significance within the Minoan religion.

↖️ Gold double axe, 1700-1450 BCE. Ephorate of Antiquities of Heraklion. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports / Hellenic Organization of Cultural Resources Development⁠
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↗️ Bronze and iron double axe, 1700-1450 BCE. Ephorate of Antiquities of Heraklion. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports / Hellenic Organization of Cultural Resources Development⁠
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↙️ Silver double axe, 1700-1450 BCE. Ephorate of Antiquities of Heraklion. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports / Hellenic Organization of Cultural Resources Development⁠
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↘️ Golden Ax, between 3500 and 3550 BC. Found in a cave in Arkalochori, on the island of Crete, Greece. Now in Boston Museum of Fine Arts. On the left side is a linear inscription that could be dedicated to Demeter.

The Minoan Double Axe: An Introduction

The Labrys, or double axe, is a symbol consisting of a handle and two symmetrical blades extending in opposite directions. The word 'labrys' is of Lydian origin, and it was adopted by Greeks to describe the double-bitted axe. It is a common artifact found in Minoan Crete, and it holds a significant position within the iconography of the civilization.

Photo by: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Archaeological Evidence of the Labrys

The Minoan double axe was typically made of metal—bronze, in most instances—and varied in size, with some examples small enough to be held in one hand and others large enough to necessitate two. Archaeological sites such as Knossos, Malia, and Phaistos have yielded a wealth of these artifacts, including small votive double axes and larger versions. The Labrys is also frequently depicted in Minoan frescoes, seals, and other forms of artistic expression.

Perhaps the most iconic archaeological discovery related to the Minoan double axe is the Palace of Knossos. Sir Arthur Evans, who led the excavation of Knossos in the early 20th century, referred to certain chambers within the palace as 'Labyrinthos,' comparing its complex layout to the mythological labyrinth housing the Minotaur. He believed the term 'labyrinth' was etymologically derived from 'labrys,' strengthening the connection between the double axe and the palace.

Photo by: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Labrys in Minoan Rituals and Religious Practices

Evidence from numerous sites indicates that the Labrys had significant ritualistic or religious use in Minoan society. The double axe is often found in contexts that suggest it was used in religious ceremonies, such as in the sanctuaries of peak sanctuaries and cave sanctuaries or in association with altars.

Specifically, Labrys is prominently featured in the frescoes of the 'House of the Double Axes' at Knossos, where it is associated with an apparent sacrificial bull. This ties in with the theory that the double axe was used in Minoan bull worship, possibly in rituals involving the sacrifice of bulls.

Photo by: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Minoan Double Axe within the Minoan Religion

Though the details of the Minoan religion remain somewhat mysterious due to the still-undeciphered Linear A script, a combination of archaeological evidence and later Greek myths allows some interpretation. The double axe, as a religious symbol, appears to have been associated with the Minoan Goddess, often called the 'Mistress of Animals.' This goddess is frequently depicted holding a double axe in either hand, suggesting that the Labrys had a divine or supernatural connotation.

The association of the Labrys with the bull sacrifice and the Minoan Goddess might point to the double axe symbolizing a form of divine authority or intervention. Given the Minoan civilization's hypothetical apparent matrifocal nature, the Labrys may also symbolize female power or fertility, especially if associated with the goddess figure.

In conclusion, the Labrys, or Minoan double axe, provides a fascinating glimpse into the ancient civilization's cultural, religious, and ritualistic practices. As a symbol, it pervades Minoan iconography, serving as a reminder of Crete's rich past and its vital role in the wider narrative of human history. Its precise meaning within Minoan society may never be fully known, but its profound influence continues to capture the imagination of scholars, historians, and enthusiasts alike.

Photo by: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Asia: The Evolution of a Name from Mycenaean Antiquity to Contemporary Geography

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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How the Mycenaean epithet “Aswiya/Asia” was primarily a place name and later became the name of an entire continent.

The vast and diverse continent of Asia, comprising an astonishing breadth of cultures, languages, and landscapes, owes its name to an ancient epithet nestled in the annals of Mycenaean civilization. The term 'Asia” has undertaken a remarkable journey, originating as the humble Mycenaean epithet 'Aswiya' and transforming through the passage of time and civilizations to define the most populous continent on Earth. This fascinating odyssey of a single name serves as a microcosm of our evolving understanding of geography, politics, and cultural identities throughout history.

Origins of the Mycenaean epithet "Aswiya"

The term 'Aswiya,' as found in the Mycenaean records, is closely associated with the Hittite and Luwian term 'Asuwa,' which denoted a confederation of states in western Anatolia during the late Bronze Age. This epithet was documented in a series of tablets discovered in the Mycenaean palatial archives, such as those in Pylos and Knossos. The tablets provide a glimpse into the intricate diplomatic relationships, trading networks, and power dynamics between these ancient civilizations.

The original geographical designation of 'Aswiya' or 'Asuwa' is believed to have been relatively limited, referring primarily to regions on the Aegean Sea's eastern coasts and western Anatolia. The term's precise location remains a subject of scholarly debate, but it is generally agreed that it centered around the Troad and extended southward along the Aegean coastline.

'Aswiya' becomes 'Asia'

The evolution of the term 'Aswiya' into 'Asia' is a testament to the dynamic interplay of language, geography, and history. Over centuries, as civilizations rose and fell, the term 'Asia' began to be used by the Greeks in a broader context than its original Mycenaean designation. The Ionian Greeks, residing in the western part of Asia Minor, were among the first to use 'Asia' to describe the lands to their east, initially referring to the areas ruled by the Persian Empire.

The Achaemenid Persians themselves seem to have adopted a version of the term, using “” to refer to the province that roughly corresponds to modern-day Turkey. This Perso-Greek usage of 'Asia' became increasingly prevalent throughout the Hellenistic period, especially after Alexander the Great's conquests, which spread Greek culture and language far and wide.

The Greeks passed it on to the Romans

As the torch of empire passed from the Greeks to the Romans, so too did the term 'Asia.' The Romans initially used 'Asia' to denote the province of Asia Minor, their first acquisition in Anatolia, conquered in the 2nd century BCE. This Roman province of 'Asia' comprised most of western Anatolia and was one of the wealthiest and most densely populated regions in the empire.

However, as the Roman Empire expanded eastward, incorporating vast territories spanning three continents, the term 'Asia' began to be applied to an increasingly large geographical area. By the time of the late Roman Empire, 'Asia' had become a catch-all term for the lands to the east of the Roman world, encapsulating the enormity and diversity of the continent that we now know as Asia.

From the Romans to the Modern West

The term 'Asia,' as we understand it today, continued to evolve well after the fall of the Roman Empire, owing much to the advancements in geographical knowledge and global exploration in the subsequent centuries. During the Middle Ages, European explorers and cartographers began using 'Asia' to refer to the vast lands east of the Ural Mountains, the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea, reflecting a more modern understanding of continental boundaries. As the Age of Discovery dawned in the 15th century, propelled by advancements in navigation and seafaring, 'Asia' started encapsulating regions even further east, including the Indian subcontinent, the Far East, and the islands of the Pacific. This continental understanding was eventually formalized in the Western tradition through the works of influential scholars and geographers, such as Ptolemy and later, Mercator. The once Mycenaean toponym, 'Aswiya” has thus journeyed across millennia through the lenses of Greeks, Persians, Romans, and countless others before being adopted by the modern Western world to represent an incredibly diverse continent rich in culture, history, and natural splendor.

Thus, the transformation of 'Aswiya' into 'Asia' presents a riveting narrative that unveils the fluidity of cultural exchange and the evolution of geographical cognition. It reminds us that every term we use, even those defining our continents, carries within it an incredibly rich tapestry of historical, cultural, and linguistic shifts. The story of 'Asia”—from its roots in the Bronze Age Aegean world, through the Greeks, Persians, and Romans, and into the cartographic distinctions of the modern Western world—provides us with a unique lens to appreciate the intricate interplay of time, language, and history. Today, 'Asia' stands as a testament to the enduring power of names and their capacity to encapsulate and convey the vast complexities of human civilization and its geographical understanding.

One of the oldest Neolithic settlement in Europe is located... in Greece! (Photo Gallery)

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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One of the most important archaeological discoveries that astonished the whole of Europe and are the oldest Neolithic settlements still discovered in ancient continent are located just a breath away from the center of Volos, waiting to be more highlighted, evaluated and promoted.

These are the settlements of Dimini and Sesklos, which are not unknown but perhaps have not received the attention they deserve.

The more important of the two settlements is the Neolithic settlement of Dimini, located on a low hill and which archaeologists believe was first excavated at the beginning of the 5th century.

Photo: The Archaeologist

The architectural remains stretch across the hill and give the image of an organized Neolithic settlement with a unique architectural element: the six stone enclosures built in pairs around the settlement. The houses were located around the central courtyard or in the space created between the pairs. They are large and have outbuildings that leave a space between them for a communal courtyard.

During the decades of excavations, stone and bone tools, figurines and jewelry were found, as well as an abundance of pottery with inscriptions that represent the peak of Neolithic ceramic art.

The archaeologist Vasiliki Adrymi - Sismanis showed with her findings that Dimini was not abandoned at the end of the Late Neolithic period, but was continuously inhabited for a long period of time until the end of the Bronze Age, while in the middle of the 15th century it was abandoned.

Houses were built to the right and left of a wide road, and the entire settlement covers an area of more than 100 hectares.

The greatest discovery in Dimini were and are the two imposing Mycenaean vaulted tombs "Lamiospito" and "Toumba", undoubtedly attributed to the kings of the settlement and considered by archaeologists to be similar to those of Mycenae.

The two Mycenaean vaulted tombs are reference points for the Neolithic settlement of Dimini, and according to the reports of the Ministry of Culture, the smallest, but also the oldest, is the so-called "Lamiospito".

The access to the dome of the "Lamiospito" was through the entrance (height 3 m, length 2.20 m and width 1.90 m), covered with four large slabs that form the lintel above which was the relief triangle. The dome, with a diameter of 8.20 m and a height of 8.10 m, was built probably using wooden molds, of which no traces can be seen. It is built of small irregular limestones without binder, reinforced especially at the base. The floor was formed by leveling the limestone rock.

The upper part of the dome covered a large round slab, "the key". The tomb yielded few but important finds, mainly glass jewelry, ivory objects and bronze weapons, which were transferred and are now exhibited in the National Archaeological Museum.

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Photo: The Archaeologist

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The possible relation to Jason

In many cases it was also mentioned that the archaeological site of Dimini was identified with that of Iolkos and that the discovered palaces may belong to Jason and the undiscovered people from that period.

Today, under the direction of the Director of the Department of Antiquities of Magnesia, Athina Batsiou and her deputy, Elisavet Nikolaou, "the excavations continue and are constantly expanding".

Photo: The Archaeologist

As Ms. Nikolaou explained: "in particular, in the center of the settlement, a large complex was investigated, consisting of two large Mansions flanked by other smaller buildings and connected by a courtyard. Mansion A, as we call it, consists of two wings with rooms connected by a corridor. The north wing houses the main accommodation rooms, while the south wing houses the auxiliary and laboratory rooms. In one of the rooms a stone balance with three Linear B symbols engraved on it was discovered, while in the corridor stone dies and other tools for metallurgy were found. The walls of Mansion A are quite well preserved, have a sufficient height and are plastered with white plaster, as are the floors. To the north and south of the building there are two independent storage wings. Mansion A was destroyed and abandoned by its inhabitants at the end of the 13th century - at the beginning of the 12th century".

The archaeologist Elisavet Nikolaou, who spoke about the other findings of the excavations, emphasized that: "Building B also includes two wings with rooms separated by a corridor. Its walls were covered with a clay plaster, excellently preserved by the fire in some places, while the floor consisted of a thick layer of clay reinforced with lime and gravel. A large amount of pottery and charred botanical remains were found in the warehouses of the ancient complex, while a raised clay altar was discovered in the vestibule.".

The vaulted tomb "Toumba" excavated by V. Stais in 1892, was found buried and is not in good condition, its dome having collapsed to the level of the lintel. It is better built than the vaulted tomb "Lamiospito" and dates - according to its architectural form - a little later than the latter. From the few fragments of vessels found during the excavation of the path leading to the dome, the last use of the tomb can be dated to the late Bronze Age, i.e. the 13th century.

The tomb consists of the dome and a long road, the sides of which are supported by stone retaining walls, 4.00 m high at the intersection with the dome and preserved in excellent condition. At the western end of the road, the wall of the last barrier of the tomb is preserved. Access to the tomb vault was through an opening covered by three large carved portal stones, 0.45 m thick. The inner slab of the transept is carved to follow the shape of the dome.

The dome is made of small limestones without binders. The stones at the base of the vault are large hewn cobblestones and rest on the limestone rock that was leveled to form the floor of the vaulted tomb, where a built urn was discovered that housed the burial bed.

Although the tomb was looted, some finds, especially small gold and glass jewelry, escaped the attention of the raiders, and these gifts are on display in the National Archaeological Museum in Athens.

Today, a bold financial support from the State is needed to continue the excavations in the Neolithic settlement of Dimini and, above all, to systematically highlight, promote and publicize the extremely important archaeological site, as requested by the Municipality of Volos, since, among other things, it is a point of reference and of great interest for thousands of tourists arriving from the cruise ships in the port of Volos.

Sesklo is a significant Neolithic settlement located in the region of Thessaly, central Greece. It dates back to around 7000 BCE and is considered one of the earliest and most important prehistoric settlements in Europe. The site provides essential information about the Neolithic period in Greece, and it played a crucial role in the development of the Neolithic culture in southeastern Europe.

The Sesklo culture developed in different phases during the Neolithic period, from the Early Neolithic (7000-6500 BCE) to the Final Neolithic (4500-3300 BCE).

The settlement at Sesklo was characterized by its organized layout, which featured rectangular houses built with wood and mud-bricks. The walls were often coated with a mixture of clay and straw to improve insulation. Roofs were typically made of thatch or wood.

The people of Sesklo were primarily engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry. They cultivated cereals like wheat and barley, legumes, and flax for linen. They also raised animals, such as goats, sheep, pigs, and cattle, for meat, milk, and wool.

Sesklo is well-known for its distinctive pottery style, characterized by monochrome painted decorations in red or dark brown on a light background. The pottery featured geometric patterns, including zigzags, spirals, and meanders. This style was widely distributed across the region and influenced pottery production in other Neolithic settlements.

Sesklo is also known for its anthropomorphic clay figurines, which were primarily female and possibly represented fertility goddesses. These figurines were either hand-modeled or made using simple molds, and their features were typically emphasized, such as breasts, hips, and buttocks.

Sesklo was part of a network of Neolithic settlements that traded and interacted with each other, exchanging raw materials, goods, and ideas. This interaction is evidenced by the presence of obsidian, a volcanic glass used for making tools, sourced from the island of Melos, which is approximately 150 km away.

The Sesklo culture came to an end around 3300 BCE, possibly due to a combination of factors, such as climatic changes, depletion of natural resources, and the invasion of new populations.

Today, Sesklo is an important archaeological site that offers valuable insights into the Neolithic way of life in Greece and Europe as a whole. Excavations have revealed a wealth of artifacts and information, helping researchers to understand the social, economic, and cultural aspects of this early human settlement.

Minyans: The enigmatic prehistoric Greek tribe

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Despite the fact that we know very little about them, the Minyans have left us with a priceless legacy that includes many of their accomplishments. But since the beginning of time, no one has been able to definitively respond to queries regarding their beginnings and original cradle. The ancient historians Herodotus, Pausanias, and Diodorus regarded the region between the Boeotian Orchomenos and the southern slopes of the Thessalian plain—an area at least largely associated with the Homeric Greece, or Phthia—as the birthplace of the Minyas.

The Boeotian Orchomenos is a reference in Homer's epics that suggests the Minya existed before the Trojans. Yet, Boeotian Orchomenos' archaeological investigations turned up Neolithic artifacts that were comparable to those from Sesklos and Dimini. Archaeological research suggests that Orchomenos was continually populated without any intervals or interruptions from the Neolithic until the present. After the "War of the Descendants" and Boeotia's incorporation into the Mycenaean polity, Orchomenos too became a part of the Mycenaean geopolitical structure. Because of this, its 30 ship participation in the Trojan War is noted in relation to the "Boeotian Commonwealth," which encompassed all Boeotian cities other than Thebes.

However, the history of the Minyas genus is lost in the depths of time and is initially associated with the Thessalian Neolithic culture rather than the Boeotian one. This is quite normal, considering that Thessaly was the cradle, the first cultural beacon of all Greeks. From Orchomenos, Strabo says that Minyas reached the Pagasitic Gulf and founded Iolkos, which, however, according to the latest archaeological research, is identified with Dimini. So, since we know approximately when the city of Dimini was founded, we also know when the first dispersal of the Minyas took place.

In the middle or even at the end of the 5th millennium BC, the Minyas of Orchomenus, who did not have a good harbor in Boeotia, settled in Magnesia, on the edge of the great Thessalian plain. The reasons for this resettlement were purely economic and had to do with both securing a safe harbor and exploiting the Thessalian plain. As fate would have it, the Minyas of Dimini came into conflict with the inhabitants of Sesklos over control of the plain.

This also explains the destruction of Sesklos by another civil war - a common phenomenon to ancient Greece - rather than by the invasion of the Indo-European peoples. It is precisely this domination of the Minyas in the Thessalian plain that will give them immense riches, so much so that centuries later they will make Achilles speak about it to Agamemnon (Iliad, I 379-382). Such was the fame of the city of Minyas for its wealth. However, the great Homer at this point, perhaps not accidentally, compares Orchomenos with Thebes in Egypt.

The ancient historians consider the Minyas to be an Aeolian people (i.e., a mixture of Pelasgians and Achaians), since they were descended from Aeolus, son of Hellen and grandson of Deucalion. The Minyas were therefore a Greek race descended from Hellen himself, the progenitor of Greek race. Mistakenly, the Minyas are attributed to Egyptian origins. The Minyas were not Egyptian settlers in Greece. Probably the opposite.

Very early the burial scheme of the Minyas was connected with that of the Thessalians, of the generation of Pinios. Minyas himself, the eponymous hero of the Minyan people, was a grandson of Poseidon. The daughters of Minyas, Perilkymene, Alcimide and Phygomachi, married the Thessalian heroes Pheris, Aesona and Pelias and ruled with them in the cities of Ferres, Aesoniada and Iolkos, respectively. So we have a complete identification of the mythological and philological sources, confirmed by the archaeological findings, through which the connection between Minyas and Thessaly is documented.

And not only that. Finds of the so-called Minyan pottery were made in northern Greece, but also in Asia Minor Greece and especially in the area around Troy. Assuming from the ancient writers that Lemnos was also Minyan, we have no difficulty in recognising the identity of the Greek Trojans.

For a long time Orchomenos, the capital of the Minyan state, and its great colony of Iolkos were the dominant cities of mainland Greece. The decline came gradually due to the incessant wars of the Minyas against the rising power of the Boeotian Empire, Thebes. The legends about Heracles are quite revealing on this point, about the rise of the Minyas, who had taxed the city of Thebes, and about the beginning of their decline after their defeat by Heracles.

This defeat led to the independence of Thebes, which became the first power in Boeotia. The tide turns in favor of the Minyans after Thebes submits to the Mycenaean army of the Epigones - a generation before the Trojans. For this reason, in the Iliad, Orchomenos participates in the Panhellenic campaign with 30 ships and puts the neighboring city of Asplidon under its command. However, Orchomenos and the Minyas by no means regained their former glory. After the Trojans, when the Mycenaean power was on the verge of collapse, Thebes was "revived" and Orchomenos fell into the shadow of the great rival city.

As we have seen, the Minyas were an Aeolian people. According to the "established" view, the Minyas lived in Thessaly, which they had to leave under the pressure of the Thessalians coming from the north. However, this view does not agree with the testimony of Strabo, who refers to northern Boeotia as their cradle, from where the Minyas moved to and settled in Thessalian Magnesia. All ancient writers refer to the inhabitants of Pagasitikos as Minyas and distinguish them from the rest of the Thessalians. Of course, the dating of all these events could not be made with certainty.

Only indirectly, always on the basis of the ancient sources, but also of the archeological findings, we can assume that the Minyan people began to develop a culture from about the middle of the 5th millennium. The region of Orchomenos became fertile and fortified by the waters of the river Kifissos, but also by Lake Kopaida. On the northeastern shore of the lake, the Minyas - at the level of today's Larymna - founded the city of Kopai, from which the lake also takes its name, formerly called Kifisis.

The city of Kopai had a double harbor, a lake and a sea. From this it can be concluded that the Minyas were a seafaring people. It is no coincidence that Minyas himself was considered a descendant of Poseidon. Strabo also mentions that Orchomenos was a member of the oldest maritime amphictyony, which also included Athens, Prasiai, Aegina, Epidaurus and Hermion (Strabo VIII 6,11). And the state of the Minyas in its heyday extended over the whole of northern Boeotia, the present Fthiotida and the present Magnesia.

The cities of Koroneia, Chaeronea, Aliartos, Livadia, Larymna, Anthidona, Kopes, Asplidona, Iolkos, Ferres and Aesoniada were all under the scepter of the king of Orchomenos. However, the strengthening and development of the kingdom did not happen overnight. We can identify two milestones in the development of the Minyan Kingdom. The first is undoubtedly the founding of the colony of Iolkos, which is directly related to the Argonautic expedition. The second, however, concerns the drying up of Lake Kopaida and the agricultural use of the new lands. Until recently, scholars spoke of a single operation to drain the lake in early Mycenaean times - around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC.

Professor T. Spyropoulos concluded that the lake was drained for the first time in the Proto-Helladic period (end of the 4th beginning of the 3rd millennium, about 3100-2800 BC). This amazing work of draining the lake in such an early period was done by the Minyas with excellent technique. Even today, visitors cannot see their remains in the large sinkhole of Kopaida, between Larymna and Gla. However, the Minyas are considered pioneers in the construction of technical works not only in their country, but also in the Peloponnese.

One of their prestigious works in the Argolis region seems to be the famous pyramid of Ellinikos, but also the great tunnel in the river Erasinos, in the present village of Kefalari Argos, 3 kilometers from the pyramid. At the same time Egypt is going through its pre-dynastic phase, and the great Cycladic and Minoan civilization has not yet reached the peak of its splendor. However, in the northern Aegean, as in Thessaly, cities have already been founded, and Poliochni on Lemnos became a center of metallurgy in the region due to the research of the Italian Archeological School. Its flourishing is such that settlers founded Troy from here around 3200-3000.

On the island of Hephaestus - Lemnos was dedicated to the god of metals, not by chance - the processing of metals arriving from the Black Sea via the trade routes opened by the Minyan Argonauts takes place. But if Lemnos, for which all ancient authors mention that it was colonized during the Argonautic campaign of Minyas, had already become a metallurgical center at the beginning of the 3rd millennium, when did this specific campaign take place? And what is the truth of the myth of Phrixus, Helle and the Golden Fleece? Perhaps the first attempt of the Minyan Greeks to explore the unknown seas of Pontus and the Baltic Sea, without success?

It is generally accepted that the Minyas, like all Greeks, were excellent seafarers. Besides the philological sources, the above conclusion is also confirmed by the archeological excavations. However, in the period between 4000-3500 BC we have no evidence of the existence of state structures in the island, unlike the mainland, where the state of the Minyas ruled. After all, a great civilization had already developed in Thessaly from the 6th millennium BC, the foundation of which was the first city in Europe, Sesklos.

This civilization developed, and its product, according to Strabo, was Dimini, which today is identified with the Minyan city of Iolkos. We can therefore speak with certainty of the formation of a kind of state entity, with a structured framework of social relations, with a specific politico-religious authority and a specific network of services. It is logical that a consolidated state-kingdom has a greater potential for development than a single town or tribe. A kingdom also has different needs and is naturally obliged to invest in both defense and trade.

The already established kingdom of Minyan Orchomenos sought to open trade routes through the northern Aegean and Black Sea. Having firmly established themselves on the straits of the Hellespont and fully controlled the trade routes by land and sea (as evidenced by the participation of named Thracian heroes in the Argonautic campaign), the Minyas established a Greek trading empire whose sphere of influence extended from northern Boeotia to northwestern Asia Minor. In this way, the framework was set for the later explosion of the Trojan War, when the colony of Troy took control of the empire and, because of its location, undermined the metropolises of Orchomenos and Iolkos.

The data confirm the original theory that the Minyas were once linked to the Minoans, but the converse may have actually been true. The British archeologist Parson, for example, believes that the Minyas and Minoans were the same people who progressively migrated from mainland Greece to Crete, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, the home of the Sumerians. However, other academics, like Parson, also make this assumption. This viewpoint is in line with Evans', who dates the pre-palatial Minoan civilization before 3200 BC, the time frame we are focusing on.

They could employ the matching land routes that they had independently found as they were not limited to the marine trade routes. One started at Troy and went to Syria, Egypt, or Mesopotamia either by traveling along the coast or across the Anatolian plateau. The other led to Egypt and Mesopotamia and began in Miletus (one of the Argonauts, Erginos, was from Miletus according to the Orphics and Apollo the Rhodian, indicating that the city of Miletus was formed long ago).

The Lamp of Aeneas found in Tenea, Greece: What it proves about the city's relationship with Troy

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Tenea: An Ancient City with a Rich History and Mythical Connections

Nestled in the region of Corinthia in southern Greece, the ancient city of Tenea boasts a history that dates back to the Bronze Age. Known for its cultural and historical significance, this enigmatic city has been the subject of archaeological studies for decades. Its origin story, which links Tenea to the Trojan War, has intrigued scholars and history enthusiasts alike. In this article, we will explore the history behind the foundation of Tenea, its discovery by archaeologists, and delve into its possible connections to ancient Troy.

Foundation of Tenea

The foundation of Tenea is steeped in myth and legend. According to ancient Greek tradition, the city was founded by Trojan captives who were brought to the Peloponnese after the fall of Troy. These captives, were given the task by Agamemnon of building a new city, which they named Tenea in honor of the goddess Athena, who was also known as Teneatis.

This origin story, while rooted in myth, is believed to hold some elements of truth. It is thought that Tenea was established during the 12th century BC, around the same time that the Trojan War is thought to have taken place. The city's strategic location, between the ancient cities of Corinth and Mycenae, allowed it to grow and flourish throughout the centuries, becoming a prosperous trade center.

Discovery by Archaeologists

Tenea's ancient ruins remained hidden from the world until the 19th century when the first excavations began. However, it wasn't until the 21st century that the significance of the site started to become clear. In 2013, the archaeologist Eleni Korka led a team of researchers to conduct extensive excavations, unearthing a wealth of artifacts and evidence of ancient life.

The archaeological site spans several acres and includes remnants of ancient houses, tombs, and a theater. The discovery of an ancient cemetery, in particular, provided crucial insights into the lives of the people who once inhabited Tenea. The graves, which date from the 4th century BC to the 4th century AD, contained valuable offerings such as pottery, jewelry, and weapons, indicating the wealth and status of the ancient Teneans.

Clues About Tenea's Connection with Ancient Troy

The mythical connection between Tenea and ancient Troy has long captivated historians and archaeologists. While definitive proof of this connection remains elusive, there are several clues that suggest a strong link between the two cities.

Firstly, the mythological origin story of Tenea's foundation by Trojan captives implies a direct connection to Troy. Additionally, the worship of the goddess Athena Teneatis further strengthens this link, as Athena was the patron goddess of both cities.

Furthermore, during the excavations led by Eleni Korka, a stone inscription was found that bore the name of a Tenean man, Sekoundos. This discovery is significant because the name Sekoundos has a Trojan etymology, suggesting that the Teneans may have maintained their Trojan heritage for centuries after their settlement in Greece.

The Lamp of Aeneas - Tenea Under Roman Rule

There were several items uncovered at Tenea in 2018, including a Roman oil lamp depicting Aeneas leaving Troy holding his aged father Anchises on his shoulder and his younger son Ascanius by the hand. This representation was based on Virgil's epic "The Aeneid". A 500-square-meter complex of Roman baths was discovered during this season's dig at Tenea.

The relationship between the Romans and the Trojans is a captivating aspect of ancient history, blending myth and reality to create a powerful origin story. Despite the geographical and temporal distance between the two civilizations, the Romans viewed the Trojans as their ancestors, forging a connection that shaped the cultural and historical narrative of ancient Rome.

The most famous account of the relationship between the Romans and the Trojans comes exactly from the Roman poet Virgil's epic, the Aeneid. Written during the 1st century BC, the Aeneid recounts the story of Aeneas, a Trojan prince and the son of the goddess Venus (Aphrodite in Greek mythology) and the mortal Anchises. Following the fall of Troy, Aeneas and a group of survivors embark on a journey to find a new homeland.

After many trials and tribulations, Aeneas reaches the Italian peninsula, where he marries the Latin princess Lavinia and establishes the city of Alba Longa. According to the myth, Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome, are direct descendants of Aeneas, thus connecting the Romans to the Trojans through a shared lineage.

The relationship between the Romans and the Trojans held significant political implications. By claiming descent from the Trojans, the Romans could assert their divine lineage and elevate their status among the ancient Mediterranean civilizations. Furthermore, this connection allowed Rome to distance itself from the Greeks, who were often viewed as rivals.

The Roman conquest of Greece began in the 2nd century BC, with the Macedonian Wars marking the beginning of Rome's expansion into the Greek world. By the mid-1st century BCE, Rome had effectively annexed the entirety of Greece, incorporating the region into the Roman Empire as the province of Achaea.

During this time, Tenea's strategic location between Corinth and Mycenae made it an important center for trade and communication. Consequently, the city attracted the attention of the Roman conquerors, who sought to integrate Tenea into their growing empire.

The Roman conquerors brought with them their own customs, beliefs, and practices, which influenced the local culture of Tenea. At the same time, Tenea's unique history and connections to ancient Troy likely intrigued the Romans, who themselves believed in a shared lineage with the Trojans through the myth of Aeneas.

This mutual fascination led to a cultural exchange, with the Romans adopting certain aspects of Tenean culture, and the Teneans integrating Roman practices into their own way of life. For instance, the worship of the goddess Athena Teneatis, which was central to the Tenean religious tradition, may have resonated with the Romans due to their own reverence for the goddess Minerva, the Roman equivalent of Athena.

The city of Tenea experienced a period of transformation under Roman rule, as it adapted to the new political, economic, and cultural landscape. Roman influence in Tenea is evident in the archaeological record, which shows the construction of buildings, infrastructure, and monuments characteristic of Roman architecture.

As part of the province of Achaea, Tenea enjoyed a degree of autonomy, allowing it to maintain its local customs and traditions. The city continued to prosper during the Roman period, benefiting from the extensive trade networks that connected the Roman Empire. The ancient cemetery discovered in Tenea, with its rich grave offerings, provides evidence of the city's wealth and status during this time.

While archaeological evidence has not yet provided conclusive proof of a connection between Tenea and ancient Troy, the tantalizing clues unearthed so far invite further exploration and study. As excavations continue, it is hoped that more insights into the captivating history of this enigmatic city will be revealed.

As Tenea continues to be uncovered and studied, it stands as a testament to the rich cultural and historical tapestry of ancient Greece. Its unique history, which blends myth and reality, serves as a reminder of the complex connections between the ancient civilizations that shaped the world as we know it today.

In the meantime, the archaeological site of Tenea continues to draw visitors from around the world, eager to catch a glimpse of the city's ancient ruins and to uncover the mysteries that still lie buried beneath the earth. The ongoing exploration of Tenea promises to shed new light on the complexities of ancient Greek society and the enduring legacy of the Trojan War. As the story of Tenea unfolds, it enriches our understanding of the past and fuels our curiosity for the secrets that remain to be discovered.

Pavlopetri, Greece: This 5,000-Year-Old Town Discovered Underwater

Underwater discoveries, from sunken civilizations to the millions of shipwrecks still undiscovered on the seabed, capture the interest of history buffs like nothing else. With less than 1% of the ocean floor having been explored so far, the world's oceans and seas have been dubbed the largest museum in the world. Some contend that the Bronze Age port of Pavlopetri's ruins, which were only recently found, may have served as the inspiration for the mythical tale of Atlantis.

Finding of Pavlopetri: The World's Oldest Underwater Town

The remnants of a submerged settlement thought to have existed as long ago as 5,000 years ago were unearthed in the 1960s by Nic Flemming from the Institute of Oceanography at the University of Southampton. The archaeological site, which is 4 meters (13.12 feet) below and is situated close to the little village of Pavlopetri in the Peloponnesus region of southern Greece, is currently thought to be the oldest known planned underwater town in the entire world. Thus, it joined the company of other enigmatic underwater colonies, towns, and cities that have captivated the interest of history buffs, such as:

• Shi Cheng, an ancient Chinese city, is immaculately preserved (the Lion City)

• India's fabled sunken temples at Mahabalipuram

• Heracleion, an ancient Egyptian city

• Israel's Atlit Yam Neolithic site, which dates back 9,000 years

• Jamaica's Port Royal, a city of pirates during the 17th century

The site was first recognized by geologist Folkion Negris in 1904, but after Flemming rediscovered it, a group of archaeologists from the University of Cambridge investigated it in 1968. The University of Nottingham then started a five-year project to research the town of Pavlopetri in 2009, overseen by John C. Henderson, in collaboration with the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research and the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities of the Greek Ministry of Culture and Tourism.

In order to examine the seabed and bring the historic town back to life before the fragile remnants are lost forever as a result of lack of protection, pollution, waves, currents, and tourists, the Pavlopetri Underwater Archaeological Project was created. Pavlopetri was the first underwater village to be digitally scanned in 3D using sonar mapping technology as a result of the project. They were able to create amazing photorealistic 3D digital reconstruction photos thanks to the confluence of cutting-edge marine science with movie industry computer graphics, which transformed underwater archaeology.

What did they discover at Pavlopetri?

The study project discovered thousands of items at the location that shed light on daily life at Pavlopetri between 3000 and 1100 BC, when it "sank," perhaps as a result of localized earthquakes, erosion, rising sea levels, or even a tsunami. The first evidence of a sunken metropolis in Greece that precedes Plato's account of Atlantis can be found there.

Pavlopetri, a representation of life 5,000 years ago, was exceptionally well planned, with streets, two-story homes with gardens, temples, cemeteries, and a sophisticated water management system with channels and water pipelines. The majority of the structures in the city's center had up to 12 rooms inside, and there was even a square or plaza that was roughly 40 by 20 meters (131 by 65 feet) in size. Its uniqueness was emphasized by Dr. Jon Henderson of the University of Nottingham team, who oversaw the Pavlopetri Underwater Archaeological Project. "There are older sunken sites around the globe, but none can be considered to be planned communities such as this," he said in The Guardian.

The renowned ancient Greek epic poem Iliad was set in a time when the city was so old that it had already existed at that time. According to research conducted in 2009, the site is around 9 acres (36,421 m2) in size, and there is evidence that it was occupied as early as 2800 BC. At least 15 buildings have been discovered, and the city's layout is still plainly discernible despite having sunk so long ago. The layout of the city is so obvious that the leader of the Nottingham archaeological team was able to construct what they consider to be an incredibly realistic 3D replica of the city.

According to historians, the ancient city served as a hub for trade between the Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations. Large clay storage containers, statues, common objects, and other relics can be found all around the site.

The city's original name, as well as its precise function in the ancient world, are unclear. According to Elias Spondylis of the Greek Ministry of Culture in the New Scientist, "It's a rare find, and it is significant because, being a submerged site, it was never reoccupied and hence symbolizes a frozen moment of the past."

Today’s condition of the site

The Pavlopetri site has focused its coverage of the world's most frequently explored seafloor on safeguarding the artifacts. The University of Nottingham team employed technology to construct a photorealistic representation of the seabed in a magnificent BBC program from 2011 titled Pavlopetri: The City Under the Waters. To support local conservation and protection efforts, including a Watch Day hosted by the Greek Chapter of ARCH International to raise awareness of the site, Pavlopetri was added to the World Monuments Watch in 2016 as a way to conserve heritage sites that are in danger.

Since then, the Watch Day has included the Pavlopetri Eco-Marine Film Festival, which presents motion pictures and documentaries about the marine environment and offers snorkeling trips beneath the surface of the old city. As a result of these activities, the region was buoyed in August 2016 to protect it from small vessels, and in 2018, it became the first location in Greek waters to be listed on marine charts that the Greek Navy's Hydrographic Department provides to mariners.

REFERENCES

• https://greeknewsagenda.gr

• https://www.greecehighdefinition.com

• https://www.allovergreece.com

The significance of the Minoan civilization

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Since originating in Eurasia, modern man (Homo sapiens) has evolved in accordance with the climatic and geographic conditions of the regions where he was discovered. The skills of agriculture and the domestication of animals were discovered thanks to his growth in the Anatolian and Mesopotamian regions. The surrounding areas started to see this progress. The western shores of Asia Minor, Cyprus, the Aegean, Crete, Greece, the Italian peninsula, and other places formed a road of civilization for the agricultural revolution of the East.

All specialized scientists today acknowledge this course of development (anthropologists, archeologists, archaeobiologists, etc.). The "flow" of new cultural aspects like knowledge, techniques, instruments, terminologies, etc. was slower than it is now. The early inhabitants of the Greek region were caught up in it like a "'wave," since it was slow and appropriate for the tools and circumstances of the time. Clearly, it was the population that existed on the Greek mainland and in the Aegean before the later Greeks from the northeast arrived, which the Mycenaeans referred to as Pelasgians.

As for the Stone Age in Crete, according to the evidence so far, there is clear evidence of the presence and activity of modern man in the period between 6100 and 5700 BC (Knossos, pre-Ceramic period; see History of Crete by Detorakis). According to the findings, people of this period apparently knew how to cultivate cereals and kept goats, sheep, pigs, and cattle. That is, the knowledge of these activities was acquired and apparently came from the sea.

This means that the people of Crete had permanent residences and were engaged in agriculture, animal husbandry, and the sea. Since the distances to the Aegean islands were short, there was communication with the coasts of Asia Minor, Cyprus, and the Eastern Mediterranean.

As far as the tools of this period (Neolithic) are concerned, the main materials used were river stones, bones, and wood, and for the houses also bricks, stones, and wood. However, it is noted that besides the settlement sites, there are also activities (dwellings, etc.) in caves, as in Miamou, Eileithyia, and Akrotiri in Chania.

In general, since then, these conditions and the way of life have been improved and enriched with new methods and new tools (e.g., the ceramic wheel). In the following phases, and during 3000 BC, copper appeared, which means that a new development comes with growth in all areas. The next period is the one called the famous Minoan civilization, that is, the civilization of the people of Crete in the Bronze Age.

According to all the evidence available so far, Crete was inhabited at that time by modern people, of whom it is not known when and from where they came but who had contacts with the whole Aegean, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Western Asia, and Egypt. It is the main representative of the "Sea Peoples" as described by the Egyptians with their hieroglyphics.

Communication by sea, of course, requires suitable ships, experienced seamen, knowledge of geography, navigation, weather, and climate conditions, but most importantly, they acquired the ability to communicate with other cultures (in other languages) and to transport goods to and from Crete. In this whole process across the sea, they have acquired enormous knowledge about the development of the other civilizations of the region, and Egypt in particular, which they now not only carry back but also spread throughout the region.

All these activities, of course, lead to considerable wealth that lands on Crete and promotes the development of life and society in all areas. The archeological excavations of the last century brought to light the famous Minoan palaces, the famous mansions, the farmhouses, the religious caves, the summit sanctuaries, the harbors, and the tombs.

All these are elements of a civilization of the second millennium BC with incredibly advanced features in construction, architecture, pottery, painting, metallurgy, sculpture, social organization, legislation and law, the status of women, the family, the economy, agriculture, and animal husbandry. Among the most important for modern man were the first writings (hieroglyphics and Linear A', which could not be read accurately, and later Linear B', on clay tablets).

A miracle of social, economic, and cultural organization and development in such a distant time The most important element of Minoan civilization, however, was its extroversion, that is, the adoption of every new idea and development encountered by others with whom it had contacts and its simultaneous spread throughout the region. Since the main activity of the Minoans was maritime trade in the Mediterranean, in order to secure their rule in the region, they founded port facilities in many areas outside Crete, in the Cyclades, in Palestine, in the Italian peninsula, etc.

These places were trading bases and, at the same time, places of cultural diffusion and development. In short, the Minoans were the ones who acted as a significant influence on modern human technological and cultural development. There were other contemporary or earlier civilizations in the eastern Mediterranean, west Asia, and Egypt.

But all of these civilizations were introverted; they had to deal with each other and even conflict because they were land civilizations and communication was over land or rivers. The Egyptian advanced civilization was in Africa, and the Egyptians did not trade across the sea. This area was ruled by the Minoans.

They were the maritime rulers of the Bronze Age in the Eastern Mediterranean, the transporters of products, ideas, arts, and tools—that is, in principle, the owners of the knowledge of any innovation and its dissemination. But they applied every innovation in their lives in Crete—in architecture, in art, in agriculture, etc.

The palaces at Knossos, Phaistos, Mallia, and Zakros, when discovered by archeologists, left everyone who studies history and culture speechless. The architecture, the organization, the storerooms, the water supply, the drainage, the ventilation, the paintings, the frescoes, the ceramics, the theaters, the streets, the clothes of the men, but especially of the women, which were impressive, the tools, the ceremonies in the palaces, the bull pits, the vaulted tombs, the sanctuaries on the summits, and many others still impress those who come into contact with them, either in the palaces or in the museums, which are filled with works of incredible beauty and perfection.

This civilization of the Cretans of the Bronze Age, the Minoan, was the first European civilization on which was based the miracle of the Greek civilization of the next era, which in turn evolved into what ended in European and global culture through the Romans.

We can highlight some important elements that contributed to the development of this culture in this particular historical period as follows:

• Crete's location in the Eastern Mediterranean, but also its geography (large, long, narrow island, with extensive coasts, varied landscapes, large mountains, plains, many caves, etc.).

• The temperate and healthy climate of Crete after the last ice age, an area with four seasons, a very diverse flora (olives, cereals, vines, etc.).

• The characteristics and the psyche of the Cretans of that time (gentle character, restless spirit, industriousness, love of life and nature, etc.), characteristics that experts associate with dolichocephalism (the analyses of the skeletons found from that period assign the Minoans to this anthropological type), are, however, in all likelihood, elements reinforced and developed by the particular conditions of Crete (geographical position, proximity to others, climate, nature, social and cultural conditions, things that are, moreover, interconnected and mutually reinforcing).

These are the most important sites of Minoan Crete

First of all, we should look at what information was available about the Minoan civilization in history. In written form there was only the mention in Homer, about the hundred cities of Crete of the famous king Minos. But Homer was 800 years away from the time before the destruction of the palaces in Crete!

There were also traditions related to religion, to Zeus born and raised in the mountains of Crete, to King Minos, the Labyrinth, the Minotaur, Knossos, etc., which were revisited by many writers from ancient times to the Middle Ages and until the end of the 19th century.

But also in Crete there were traditions about places, toponyms and lost states, the sacred caves and mountains, as well as in many areas in the Aegean, in mainland Greece, in the Italian peninsula, in Sicily, there were places with the names "Minoan". All this preserved the myth of a glorious era in Crete, whose elements were dug out of the earth by explorers and conquerors and began to enrich collections and museums.

Today we know many things. Systematic excavations have been carried out by distinguished scientific archeologists and the map of Minoan, Mycenaean and Classical Crete has been created.

Specifically for Minoan Crete, we know that the most important cities and palaces are located mainly in central and eastern Crete. As criteria for any activity in Minoan Crete, we must consider the geography, the climate, the distances from the sea or from the plains, and the proximity to other outlying areas with settlements.

Key elements that influenced the choice of the location of a city in Crete were the following:

1. Distance from the coasts. The Mediterranean Sea continued to fill with water after the last ice age and the sea level rose, which meant that people avoided living near the coast at that time.

(Note: According to experts, the level of the Mediterranean Sea drops by up to a hundred meters during the Earth's ice ages, which means that with the end of this period, the sea level gradually rises sharply!)

2. The territory of Crete is located on the borders of the lithospheric plates of Africa and Eurasia and is regularly shaken by large and destructive earthquakes, with the result that, apart from temporary damage, the relief on the coasts changes. In other places there is an uplift and in others a subsidence of the coasts.

3. The geographical relief of Crete, especially with regard to the mountain massifs. The mountains of Crete played an important role in the selection of settlements. The long and narrow Crete has three major mountain massifs from east to west and about ten other smaller ones in between. Originally, the mountains were used as dwellings and places of worship, as there are hundreds of caves where the inhabitants of Crete used to stay (shepherds in winter, refugees in times of war). In some caves there are even churches, which are connected to the ancient sanctuaries. But in ancient times, the caves of Crete were not only inhabited and provided clean water, but were also used as mines, because veins of various metals had been discovered and exploited. So it was a matter of practicality for a city or a settlement to be located near a mountain and caves.

4. The proximity to the great civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt, combined with the fact that the activities in Greece and in the West in general were not important according to what we know so far.

Based on the above, the ancient Cretans chose to establish their settlements and cities in mountainous or semi-mountainous areas at altitudes between 200 and 400 meters in the northern part of the island and between 500 and 600 meters on the western and steep side.

The first modern settlers from the 6th or 5th millennium BC, who came from the sea, knew that all invaders would come the same way, and therefore they also avoided the coasts, but also the low plains for settlement. Even today, the villages in Crete are built in places far from the sea, at the roots of the mountains and even hidden from the sight of those who come from the sea (without good intentions).

In general, the rule was: far from the sea, not in a plain, but near a mountain or semi-mountain, near water sources!

But apart from this rule, there was another reason in Crete that influenced the spread of Minoan culture.

This reason was the inhomogeneity of the population between eastern and western Crete, combined with the geographical relief, with the consequence that the important cultural centers developed mainly in the central and eastern parts of the island, since it is very likely that the arrival of people and ideas in Crete was from the east.

Another important feature that influenced the development of people's activities in Crete over time is the climatic conditions. There is a significant difference in climate between eastern and western Crete. Due to the much higher amount of precipitation in western Crete, it is believed that the mountains there were green and very densely forested in ancient times, unlike eastern Crete, where the climate was drier and less humid.

From this it can be seen that the activities of the Minoans in eastern and central Crete are becoming more and more important.

However, systematic and careful excavations were not carried out at all of these sites. On the contrary, since ancient times and perhaps until recently, illegal excavations and looting were carried out in tombs, settlements, sanctuaries, etc., with the result that many important finds disappeared forever in foreign collections and museums without being evaluated and documenting their historical position.

It is one more reason to highlight the Minoan culture, its epoch and its importance for European and world culture by including it in the UNESCO protected monuments.

This will be another trigger to focus on strengthening agencies and structures to promote this very important era of Crete.

Ancient DNA analysis reveals Marriage rules in Minoan Crete

New archaeogenetic data allow exciting insights into the social order of the Aegean Bronze Age

The well-known figure of a Minoan goddess, artistically appropriated and depicted holding DNA chains instead of snakes. The population is born from her "ancient" body. The orange and red genealogy refers to the research finding of endogamy between first and second cousins. Credit: Eva Skourtanioti

An international team of researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, reports completely new insights into Bronze Age marriage rules and family structures in Greece. Analyses of ancient genomes show that the choice of marriage partners was determined by one's own kinship.

A research team from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, together with an international team of partners, analysed over 100 genomes of Bronze Age people from the Aegean. “Without the great cooperation with our partners in Greece and worldwide, this would not have been possible,” says archaeologist Philipp Stockhammer, one of the study’s lead authors.

Akrotiri, 1600 BC. G.Rava art

First biological family tree of a Mycenaean family

Thanks to recent methodological advances in the production and evaluation of ancient genetic datasets, it has now been possible to produce extensive data even in regions with problematic DNA preservation due to climate conditions, such as Greece. For a Mycenaean hamlet of the 16th century BC, it has even been possible to reconstruct the kinship of the house’s inhabitants – the first family tree that has so far been genetically reconstructed for the entire ancient Mediterranean region.

Apparently, some of the sons still lived in their parents’ hamlet in adulthood. At least their children were buried in a tomb under the courtyard of the estate. One of the wives who married into the house brought her sister into the family, as her child was also buried in the same grave.

olive harvesting in the Aegean Bronze Age. Credit: Nikola Nevenov

Customary to marry one’s first cousin

However, another finding was completely unexpected: on Crete and the other Greek islands, as well as on the mainland, it was very common to marry one’s first cousin 4000 years ago. “More than a thousand ancient genomes from different regions of the world have now been published, but it seems that such a strict system of kin marriage did not exist anywhere else in the ancient world,” says Eirini Skourtanioti, the lead author of the study who conducted the analyses. “This came as a complete surprise to all of us and raises many questions.”

How this particular marriage rule can be explained, the research team can only speculate. “Maybe this was a way to prevent the inherited farmland from being divided up more and more? In any case, it guaranteed a certain continuity of the family in one place, which is an important prerequisite for the cultivation of olives and grapes, for example,” Stockhammer suspects. “What is certain is that the analysis of ancient genomes will continue to provide us with fantastic, new insights into ancient family structures in the future,” adds Skourtanioti.

More information: Eirini Skourtanioti, Ancient DNA reveals admixture history and endogamy in the prehistoric Aegean, Nature Ecology & Evolution (2023). DOI: 10.1038/s41559-022-01952-3.

A Mycenaean principality is discovered in the south of Rethymnon, Crete

A Mycenaean principality that controlled the roads to the sea south of Crete is uncovered in Orne of Agios Vasilios, where a first five-year excavation cycle was completed in the summer of 2022.

It is the largest acropolis discovered in Crete and one of the largest brought to light so far by archaeological excavations in the southeastern Mediterranean. The impressive finds and new information about ancient Crete contribute to our better and more thorough knowledge of our island's ancient past.

The extent of the archaeological wealth unearthed in the south of Rethymno, which has generated worldwide interest, prompted the excavation team to request permission for a second excavation programme after it became clear that the ancient acropolis in Orne could yield even more "treasures" of finds and historical knowledge.

And this is the work of eminent archaeologists who have worked hard in recent years to bring to light an "unknown world" whose "secrets" had been hidden by past centuries.

The excavation team that succeeded in shedding light on the past hidden in the hills of Orne consists of Professor Nikos Chr. Stampolidis, Director of the Acropolis Museum, Professor Manolis Stefanakis of the University of the Aegean, Dr. Athanasia Kanda, Honorary Director of Antiquities of the Heraklion Regional Unit, Anastasia Tzigounakis, Director of Antiquities of Rethymno, and archaeologist Manos Papadakis.

THE FINDS OF THIS YEAR 

This year's impressive finds provide new evidence for the Mycenaean period of ancient Crete, as described by eminent archaeologists Athanasia Kanda and Manos Papadakis.

In particular, last summer the research of buildings from the 4th century BC continued, showing that the densely populated and fortified citadel had excellent architectural and urban planning, suggesting the existence of an organized central administration. It seems that there was a Mycenaean principality in Orne that controlled the natural routes to the sea through the area of today's Agia Galini, but also the valley of Amari to the plain of Messara.

The acropolis, one of the largest in the southeastern Mediterranean with an area of 55 hectares, was a fortified settlement for a much larger number of people than previously thought, due to the dense arrangement of buildings in the enclosed area.

In 2022, buildings with storage and laboratory facilities were also found. Among them was a metallurgical workshop, as evidenced by a die, i.e. a mold for the production of bronze spears. In 2022 there was also strong evidence of the existence of places of worship, as shown by the figurines found in various rooms. The streets are paved. There are impressively large rooms that are tiled, as well as rooms with desks for various purposes. The sloping terrain was exploited and designed, which testifies to the skill of the builders, but also to the need to use all the available land, because the citadel also has flatter parts, and these could have been used only if it had been necessary to accommodate a large number of inhabitants.

The citadel of Orne was destroyed by fire, probably preceded by an earthquake, as evidenced by the shaken walls and burned beams. In the rooms were found the objects used by the inhabitants, which were left behind when they left the citadel.

A NEW EXCAVATION PROGRAMME IS NECESSARY

The 2022 excavation at the Mycenaean citadel of Orne marked the successful completion of the five-year excavation programme approved by the Central Archaeological Council.

The research was carried out with grants from the Region of Crete, the Municipality of Agios Vasileios and the Institute of Aegean Prehistory. The Mayor of Agios Vasileios, Mr. Ioannis Tatarakis, and the staff of the Municipality have been very supportive of the excavation work.

The excavation team, with a new application to the Ministry of Culture and Sports, has already requested approval for a new five-year programme of excavations on the Acropolis.

The new programme is absolutely necessary and reflects a promising future of excavations and discoveries.

It preceded the Antikythera Mechanism by 1,400 years and is the first analog computer in history

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The first analog computer in the history of mankind was discovered by the Minoans, according to the Cretan explorer of Aegean scripts, Minas Tsikritsis.

According to the researcher, the Minoan object found in 1898 in the Palaikastro of Sitia predates the "mechanism of Antikythera" by 1,400 years and is the first analog computer in history, and a portable one.

"While searching for Minoan finds with astronomical representations in the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, we found a stone matrix from the Palaikastro region of Sitia. Stefanos Xanthoudis and Arthur Evans had referred to this matrix and explained that the engraved symbols on the surface of the matrix were related to the sun and the moon," Mr. Tsikritsis points out.

How did it work?

According to the Greek researcher, this matrix was utilized as a matrix for the development of a device that worked as an analog computer for the prediction of eclipses following an initial study of the relief representation of the disc on the right side of the matrix. The mechanism's potential applications as a sundial and a tool for measuring latitude were looked into concurrently.

This construction is able to determine the time and latitude of a place if we use the three tools—two needles and a compass—located in the matrix above the disc.

The disc has 25 triangular shapes around its circumference; if we count them every half hour and place a needle perpendicular to the central dent and align the central cross in the north-south direction, the shadow of the needle will indicate the point on the disc corresponding to the hour of observation. So it seems that this mechanism can be used as a daily sundial (12.5 hours). From this use, it appears that the time corresponds to about 58 minutes, which is very close to the time used today. Considering that one triangular hand (radial part) corresponds to about half an hour, the five points on each triangular hand divide it into five smaller time units, lasting about 6 running minutes.

How did Dr. Tsikritsis arrive at these results?

He has encountered numerous finds of astronomical importance during the past few years while researching Minoan artifacts related to the astronomy of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, which he details in his most recent book. He discovered the drawings from the Palaikastro matrix that were published in the "Archaeological Journal" in 1900, as well as the sketches from Evans, the Knossos excavation director's book titled "The Palace of Minos, etc." According to Evans, the images, which include moon and solar emblems, are etched on clay slate tiles from the 15th century. He requested authorization from the Heraklion Archaeological Museum to study the item because the photographs weren't sharp. He was given high-resolution pictures by the director, Mr. G. Rethemniotakis, and the archaeologist, K. Athanasaki. He came to an explanation for the use of this special matrix based on these images, their correlation with other archaeological discoveries, historical and astronomical data on timekeeping and forecasting lunar and solar eclipses, and other information.

Through this matrix, an analog computer is described that measures time, determines latitude, and predicts lunar eclipses!

Such a feat sounds unimaginable in the age of the Argonauts

He first examined and comprehended the operation of the radial disc on the right side of the uterus before studying the disc on the left. A cross, typically regarded as a representation of the sun, may be seen in the center of the disc. He counted 28 numbered moments in the outer circle and 18 moments surrounding the cross symbol after magnifying his discovery. He also recognized the moon symbol (in the shape of a meniscus) below the circle. If the symbol for the sun has 18 moments around it, then the symbol for the moon has 28 moments around it because there are 28 lunar eclipses every 18 years and 11 days. The Chaldeans were aware of the "Saros" recurrence effect of moon eclipses every 18 years and 11 days.

Yet the earliest archaeological evidence of Chaldean references to Saros is from 750 B.C. Such an understanding of the periodicity of eclipses implies that the Minoans either had advanced astronomical knowledge or that the Babylonians or Sumerians originally had this understanding and had adopted it. In addition, there is déjà vu: the Antikythera machine revealed the same prediction based on Sarus!

Dr. Minas is now certain that the Minoans were among the first, if not the first, to discover the concept of Sarus. He believes that this "new" find does not diminish the value of the Antikythera find but rather pushes back the date of its creation by 14 centuries. So we rewrite the introductory chapter in the history of science, starting with the "computer of Palaikastro", 1500 BC".

The creators of the Antikythera mechanism used a variety of remarkable gears for their time in order to predict lunar eclipses. We can detect a straightforward point carving in this matrix. How does it complete the computation?

It is indeed a miracle of an elegant solution with maximum simplicity of construction. The inner circle is divided into two semicircles, each with 29 and 30 engravings. These semicircles represent two lunar months of 29 and 30 days, beginning and ending with a full moon. If we move a needle clockwise in the inner circle every day and another needle counterclockwise in the circumference with the radial triangular teeth every 15 days, we get the course of the moon in relation to the course of the sun.

The rotation of the nodes is depicted by the circle with 58 holes in the "calculating machine of Palaikastro."

A literal definition of an eclipse is "disappearing into shadow." There would be a lunar and solar eclipse each month if the Earth's orbit and the Moon's orbital plane were in alignment. The orbits of the Moon and Earth, however, are in planes with an inclination of 5 degrees, so this is not the case. "Lunar conjunctions" are the locations where the Earth's orbital plane and the Moon's orbital plane cross. We experience a lunar eclipse when the moon is in its full moon phase and the sun is quite close to one of the two lunar conjunctions. Every 18 years, these two points (the nodes) undergo a full revolution. As a result, the nodes rotate three times in a clockwise direction per year, always in diametrically opposed locations. The rotation of the nodes is depicted by the circle with 58 holes in the "calculating machine of Palaikastro." The same cycle of lunar eclipses was repeated when this 18.5-year span was over. The data indicates that the matrix's creators were aware of this cycle of node migration.

Does this "computer" find the eclipses correctly?

According to Dr. Minas, he calculated for sure the last total lunar eclipse on December 21, 2010, and then he found that he could use the same logic to predict the eclipses in 2011 and others in 2015, 2017, and 2018.

In addition, if we align the central cross in the north-south direction and place a needle vertically in the central dent, the shadow of the needle indicates the point on the radial disk corresponding to the observation time. So it seems that this mechanism could be also used as a daily "solar wristwatch", with a time corresponding to about 58 minutes. That is very close to the time used today. Considering that each triangular pointer of the radial part is about half an hour, the five points of each pointer divide it into five smaller time units, lasting about 6 running minutes.

What do the other symbols in the matrix mean?

On the matrix, above the disk, there are three tools for determining the latitude. If the user of the disk used the two needles and the semicircular forceps found in the imprint of the back of the matrix and weekly marked the edge of the shadow when the sun was in the meridian, then he could record (with the angle formed by the needles) the latitude of the place where he was. In the event of a future shift, all he had to do was measure the shadow of the needle in the appropriate week to determine how far north he went so he could return!

this interpretation overturns much of what is believed about the Minoan civilization to this day

Significantly, Dr. Minas also refers to two well-known photographs showing Minoan ships. The first boat is depicted on a Cycladic "pan-shaped" ship from 2300 BC with 14 pairs of oars, suggesting a ship 32 meters long. In another depiction, a fresco from Santorini dated 1640 BC, there is a large boat with 26 pairs of oars, which, according to the author Cavin Menzies, corresponds to a ship 54 meters long. This development of navigation sounds logical for a period of 700 years. But it is not logical for a civilization that developed maritime trade from 2800 BC to 1200 BC to not have developed an appropriate science for its needs. It would have had to develop mathematics and astronomy, among other things.

great correspondence of the matrix with the megalithic formation of Stonehenge

The matrix has the same number of holes (29 + 30 in the inner circle and 57 in the outer circle) as that of Stonehenge. There is the so-called "Circle Z" with 29 holes, and around it is the "Circle Y" with 30 holes. The outer closing circle, which surrounds all of Stonehenge, consists of 57 holes and is called Aubrey Holes. Also in the center of the Temple," there are 19 stones (the so-called Bluestone Petal), but the same number of small holes exist in two areas of the inner cross of the "Matrix of Palaikastro."

The construction of Stonehenge has been attributed to the ancient Celts and their Druids, but excavation findings date it to the 2nd millennium B.C. The known civilizations that could be associated with such a "temple" in the Bronze Age would be the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians, and the Creto-Mycenaeans. However, the only circular structures we know of in any of them are the mounds of Mycenae (16th century B.C.), which are tombs, not temples, and the so-called "Ring of Minos". In this ring, there is a circular building on a hill surrounded by stones. If this structure was an astronomical observatory, it could be related to the circular building structure of Stonehenge. Perhaps, after all, the Minoan civilization was related to the "Hyperboreans" of Britain, as Diodorus Siculus had written.

This Egyptian Relief is the earliest portrait of a Greek woman!

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Breaking Ground: Discovering the Earliest Portrait of a Greek Woman in Egyptian Relief Art

For centuries, historians and archaeologists have tirelessly worked to unravel the mysteries of ancient civilizations. Egyptian art, in particular, serves as an invaluable source of historical knowledge, providing insight into the society, culture, and everyday life of one of the world's most ancient and influential civilizations. One recent discovery has astounded the historical community: the earliest known portrait of a Greek woman beautifully etched into an Egyptian relief.

It is Egyptian and dates back to 1302 BC, about 100 years before the Trojan War! It is located on the Second Pylon of Pharaoh Horemheb at Karnak, the largest place of worship in ancient Egypt. The relief depicts a woman of obvious Greek origin. Her distinct Greek attire and the characteristic hairstyle clearly differentiate her from her Egyptian contemporaries, which makes this find particularly exciting.

In Horemheb's colossal relief group of prisoners of war, there is also a gang of captives (men and women) with their race-name "Haunebu" inscribed against them.

The heads of the men are distorted, but the profile of a woman is yet perfect, and this profile is the earliest portrait of a Greek woman in the world. Her eye is defaced, but the delicate outline of the features is yet unscathed. She is depicted with a thin long ringlet (probably one on each side), a characteristic feature of the female hair in archaic Greek art. Therefore, it can be assumed that this hairstyle was a "national fashion" quite earlier.

Statue showing the King Mentuhotep III as Osiris with a tall crown, long beard and an full-length cloak.

The ethnonym "Haunebu", as a general term for the inhabitants of the Aegean area, is mentioned for the first time as early as the time of Pharaoh Sankhara (Mentuhotep III), of the 11th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom (2010-1998 BC), as it appears on a carved slab of his time.

After this mention, we hear no more of early Greeks in Egypt until they reappear as Danai or Danaeans (Tanaju), about half a millennium later, in the reign of Thutmose III (1479-1425 BC). This pharaoh was the equivalent of "Alexander the Great" of ancient Egyptian history. He conquered most of the then known world, building Egypt's largest empire ever.

He carved the names of hundreds of defeated nations and conquered cities on the walls of Karnak and the Great Temple of Ammun. In these famous inscriptions, also known as the "Annals of Thutmose III", we find the Greeks mentioned for the second time in Egyptian history, as a diplomatic meeting between the Mycenaean delegation and the pharaoh in the area of Syria is recorded.

The ethnonym "Haunebu" nevertheless survived until the time of the Ptolemies, when the Greeks ruled Egypt. The native Egyptian scribes of the comparative Hellenistic Era used it to denote the ruling race (the Rosetta Stone), just as their distant ancestors had used it to denote "Greek barbarians," people of the sea who had been captured in battle 15 whole centuries ago!

The Hall of Annals of Thutmosis III, Temple of Karnak in Thebes. (mid 15th c. B.C.) Thutmosis (Menkheperre) offers foreign gifts to Amun.

This remarkable find not only represents the earliest known portrait of a Greek woman in Egyptian art but also stimulates a reevaluation of our understanding of ancient societal interactions, cultural exchanges, and the roles of Greek women in Ptolemaic Egypt. It serves as an invaluable link to the past, allowing us a peek into the nuanced relationships between one of the ancient world's most formidable powers and its influential Greek contemporaries.

Like many great historical discoveries, this one prompts as many questions as it answers, reminding us of the rich and layered tapestry that is human history. As scholars continue to study this fascinating artifact, it is certain that we will gain even more insight into the complex dynamics of cultural exchange in the ancient world, the status of Greek women in foreign societies, and the extent of their participation in public and religious life.

In conclusion, the Egyptian relief portraying the earliest Greek woman is not only an artistic marvel but also a testament to the complexities of ancient societies and the rich tapestry of cultural exchange that has shaped human history. As researchers continue to unveil the mysteries etched into this invaluable piece of art, we look forward to the new chapters this will open in our understanding of our shared past.

The Mycenaean center of Iklaina: In the footsteps of the first federation of the western world

Archeologist Michalis Kosmopoulos talks about the new finds at the site where the oldest Linear B tablet was found in 2011, as well as the importance of the Mycenaean center in terms of state organization that "influenced" even the United States.

It is known as the city where the oldest Linear B tablet was found.

And as excavations have progressed over the past 11 years in southwestern Messinia, our knowledge of the political organization of Mycenaean Greece is changing, as Cyclopean architecture, wall paintings, urban infrastructure, and residential organization reveal that it was a new palatial center that is now revealing another aspect of its splendor and power.

It turns out that almost 500 years after its destruction, not only did it not fall into oblivion, but its memory outlasted time and was mentioned as one of the nine capitals of the western part of the kingdom of Pylos in Homer's "Iliad".

And its name in the "Catalog of Ships" - Aipy - may not help us locate the great Mycenaean center on the modern map. However, this is the most important archeological site that has been excavated since 2011 at a distance of only 2 km from the village of Iklaina and 14 km south of Pylos, as the professor of archeology at the University of Missouri, Michalis Kosmopoulos, pointed out a few days ago in a speech to the Archeological Society under whose auspices the excavations are being carried out.

A monumental gateway that led from the neighborhood of houses and workshops to the administrative center of the city is one of the most important and impressive finds recently unearthed by the excavation team led by Professor Kosmopoulos. It consists of two large cubes and a 2-meter opening, although the upper part, which was probably made of bricks, is not preserved. The condition of the find is not good, since it was paved over the centuries and part of it, as well as the paved streets and squares, was destroyed by the sweeping of the plows, since the antiquities were at a very shallow depth (20-30 cm). "This is a focal point of the city, as the gate leads from the residential to the administrative center," the excavator explained to Greek newspaper "NEA". "From the gate begins a paved road, 17 m long and as wide as the gate (2 m), of such quality that anything similar to this does not even exist in Mycenae, since the joints are not even visible," he continues, explaining that the road leads to a construction in a cyclopean manner, that is, with blocks that served as a platform to support a two- or three-story building.

As impressive as the mansion at the heart of the administrative center - which was also digitally represented in three dimensions - is, it is not the only element that distinguishes Iklaina.

It's the city's water supply and sewage system, as well as more than 1,000 frescoes depicting female figures, sailors and fish, among other things.

"Such infrastructures for the Mycenaean world are extremely rare, we find them only in Mycenae, Tiryns, Thebes, Egliano, where the so-called Palace of Nestor is located, which shows that Iklaina is a great unknown Mycenaean center. In a settlement of lesser importance, you would not find such a thing," he stresses, recalling the discovery of the oldest Linear B sign six years ago in a deposit, that is, in the garbage, of the prehistoric settlement. It bears a different text on its two sides and is dated to between 1420 and 1370 BC, while the oldest Linear B tablet from Mycenae so far has been dated to 1390/70 to 1330/15 BC.

THE KINGDOM OF PYLOS

So what role did it play in the Mycenaean world? "It was one of the capitals of the kingdom of Pylos, which was divided into two provinces. The western one had nine capitals and the eastern one seven, which is due to the fact that the kingdom of Pylos was formed gradually and the local rulers of each city fought with their neighbors. The ruler who lived in the so-called Palace of Nestor seems to have prevailed, but he maintained the independence of the cities he conquered, creating an early federation. It is the first appearance of a kind of federal state in the world, and in search of the roots of their own state, the Americans are exclusively funding this particular excavation," says Professor Kosmopoulos about the city that flourished around 1300 BC, a century before the so-called Palace of Nestor.

In the heyday of the palace, it seems to have been conquered, destroyed, and relegated to a laboratory center. "This destruction was the salvation for the preservation of the cityscape, because, oxymoronic as it may sound, in cases where there is continuity in an area, the newer buildings destroy the older ones," explains the archeologist about the city, which occupies almost 180 hectares, but whose population cannot be calculated from the data so far.

This particular Mycenaean center justifies its presence in the "Catalog of Ships" of the "Iliad", as "euctiton", i.e. well-built in Greek, more than 400 years after its destruction, and that today allows scholars to locate its ancient name: "Until today, the capital a-pu2 (pronounced Aipy or Aiphy), mentioned in the Linear B tablets of Pylos, could not be located on the map. However, considering that the capitals always appear in the same geographical order in all the tablets, and knowing that Aipy is located south of Nestor's palace and that, according to the evidence on the tablets, it is not a coastal city, we conclude that the great Mycenaean center of Iklaina is identified with Aipy," says the archeologist and regular member of the American Academy of Sciences of St. Louis.

The question that puzzles researchers, however, is how the fame of Aipy got into the Homeric epics, since the destruction of the city took place in 1200 BC and the writing of the rhapsodies is dated to 750-700 BC. "The greatest possibility is in the oral tradition, which means that Iklaina was a very powerful center and its monuments were still visible and impressed the people of the time. Homer's research has proved that there was interaction between the rhapsodists who recited the epics and their listeners, so important centers with great monuments could have been preserved in the epics and consequently in memory through oral tradition," concludes Michalis Kosmopoulos.

The Idalion Bilingual: A Keystone in Deciphering the Cypriot Syllabary

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

In the realm of archaeology, some artifacts hold the key to unlocking hidden aspects of our past. The Idalion Bilingual, a small yet significant inscription discovered in Cyprus, is one such artifact. It played a pivotal role in deciphering the Cypriot syllabary, enabling researchers to unravel the linguistic threads of ancient Cypriot society.

Discovery of The Idalion Bilingual

The Cypriot syllabic script was deciphered in the 19th century (in 1870), by G. Smith. The reason was the Phoenician-Cypriot bilingual inscription found in Idalion. It was the key to the decipherment of the Cypriot syllabary, in the manner of the Rosetta Stone for hieroglyphs.

Egyptologist Samuel Birch (1872), numismatist Johannes Brandis (1873), philologist Moritz Schmidt, Wilhelm Deecke, Justus Siegismund (1874), and linguist H.L. Ahrens (1876) also contributed to the decipherment.

The Idalion Bilingual, found in the ancient city of Idalion, is an inscription that bears the same text in two different scripts. It was uncovered during excavations conducted in the 19th century, amidst the remains of the once prosperous city. The script on one side is in the well-known ancient Phoenician alphabet, while the other side is inscribed with the then-undeciphered Cypriot syllabary.

It was discovered by Robert Hamilton Lang in his excavations at the Temple of Idalium (modern Dali, Cyprus), whose work there had been inspired by the discovery of the Idalion Tablet in 1850. The stone was found in the centre of the temple, together with the five other Idalion Temple inscriptions. The stone is thought to have been a pedestal for a statue, as there is an apparent dowel hole in the top.

Lang wrote of his discovery:

The most valuable monument uncovered by my excavations is unquestionably the bilingual inscription in Cyprian and Phoenician, engraved on marble; an inscription which, I feel confident, will ultimately prove the means of enabling philologists to decipher the Cyprian alphabet ... The bilingual inscription proves also that, the two alphabets, Phoenician and Cyprian, had a contemporaneous existence.

It is currently in the archives of the British Museum, with identification number 125320.

 

Cracking the Code: Deciphering the Cypriot Syllabary

The Cypriot syllabary is an ancient script that was used in Cyprus from the 11th to the 4th centuries BC. Until the discovery of the Idalion Bilingual, the syllabary remained a mystery, its signs and symbols inscrutable to researchers.

The value of the Idalion Bilingual lies in its nature as a bilingual text. This meant that scholars could use the known Phoenician inscription to interpret the corresponding text in the unknown Cypriot syllabary, creating an invaluable linguistic bridge between the two scripts.

The decipherment process relied on recognizing that the same message was inscribed in both scripts, even though they appeared quite different. Researchers carefully matched up corresponding words and phrases from both inscriptions, leading to the identification of the phonetic values of the signs of the Cypriot syllabary. The decoding was a significant breakthrough, revealing the ancient script's structure and linguistic characteristics.

The Implications of Decipherment

The successful decipherment of the Cypriot syllabary, aided by the Idalion Bilingual, brought about profound implications for the study of ancient Cypriot history and culture. It opened a new window into the socio-political, economic, and cultural life of ancient Cyprus, as researchers could now read and interpret a multitude of inscriptions found across the island.

Through these texts, scholars have gained insights into the religious practices, administrative systems, and economic activities of ancient Cypriot society. Moreover, the knowledge of the Cypriot syllabary has shed light on the linguistic evolution of the region, tracing the roots and influences of the Greek language in Cyprus.

Description of the block; base, and votive offering that carries the bilingual inscription

The maximum width and depth of the stone are preserved, but the upper front surface of the stone is damaged on both the top left and especially at the top right and along the right side, where the beginning of both the Phoenician and the Greek texts are missing. The top of the base is also damaged, though the maximum preserved height in the middle appears to represent more or less the top of the base; however, the surface at the front looks like it has been hacked or chiseled, perhaps to remove the statue (if this had been made of metal), so there may have been some loss of the original height.

At the back left of the top surface is a deep oval trough, probably for securing the statue mentioned in the inscription; again, this is likely to have been mutilated in order to remove any metal. There are no corresponding holes on the right side or elsewhere on the top surface, though the top right is particularly damaged. The back of the pedestal is roughly chiseled but not broken in the way that the top has been mutilated, suggesting that this is the original surface; the rough finish suggests that it was not meant to be seen and was probably placed against a wall or another pedestal when originally erected.

The Phoenician text consists of three lines, written right to left (sinistrograde), but is incomplete on both sides. The Cypro-Syllabic text occupies four lines, also sinistrograde, of which the beginning of the first three lines are also incomplete, but are fully preserved on the left side.

Inscriptions

In Conclusion: The Power of the Idalion Bilingual

The decipherment of the Cypriot syllabary, facilitated by the Idalion Bilingual, underscores the power of archeology in understanding our past. This modest artifact became a pivotal key to unlocking a centuries-old script, providing valuable insights into a fascinating civilization that existed over two millennia ago.

The Idalion Bilingual stands as a potent symbol of the interconnectedness of human societies, highlighting how the decoding of a language can dramatically widen our understanding of the human experience. It is a testament to the rich tapestry of human civilization, inviting us to continually probe, explore, and appreciate our shared heritage.

Mycenaean Complex of Iklaina: Uncovering Homer’s Legendary Town

Just 10km from Nestor's Palace in the Messinia region of the Peloponnese lies another fascinating site—once a thriving city at the dawn of civilization.

Nestled amongst the hills of the southwestern Peloponnese, just a short journey from the well-documented Nestor's Palace, the ruins of Iklaina provide a breathtaking backdrop to the olive groves that surround them. Overlooking the bay where the crucial Battle of Navarino played out in 1827, this city—with its palatial complexes, methodically designed infrastructure, and well-preserved streets—offers a peek into the dawn of Western civilization.

The present-day vision of ancient Iklaina owes much to the dedication of Dr. Michael Cosmopoulos, an esteemed archaeologist based at the University of Missouri-St. Louis. Under his guidance, the first phase of excavation at the site unveiled a treasure trove of information, most notably a Linear B-inscribed tablet that lends insights into possibly the first federal governance system in the West.

Following the initial success, Cosmopoulos has embarked on a second phase, which aims to rejuvenate the city ruins into an archaeological park. His vision includes dual visitor paths—one within the ancient enclosure and another elevated, offering panoramic views. A mobile application is also in the works to help visitors reimagine the town's grandeur three millennia ago.

Iklaina's significance is further elevated when one considers its mention in Homer's epic, "The Iliad", despite the city facing destruction half a millennium prior. The city's prime, around 1500 to 1250 BC, witnessed the rise of the neighboring Palace of Nestor. Decades of research funded by numerous institutions, including UMSL and the National Geographic Society, revealed the city's division into administrative, residential, and industrial quarters, hinting at a mature socio-economic fabric.

The ruins have divulged their fair share of secrets. Cosmopoulos speaks of a gigantic cyclopean platform believed to have supported multi-story structures. Surrounding this were well-preserved streets, public spaces, and a monumental secondary structure. The residences outside this administrative core boasted innovative designs, including an impressive sewerage system, which, considering its age, is a testament to the city's advanced engineering skills.

The previously mentioned Linear B tablet, dating back to around 1300–1350 BC, stands as a testament to Iklaina's importance. Not only is it the oldest of its kind, but it also provides evidence of Iklaina’s status as an independent entity. This intricately documented governance system parallels modern-day federal states.

However, Iklaina's decline came about in 1250 BC, when it was annexed by the ruler of Nestor's Palace. The once-thriving administrative hub was relegated to mere manufacturing. A subsequent calamity around 1200 BC led to the desertion of these manufacturing units, coinciding with the downfall of Nestor's Palace.

The chronicles of Iklaina offer insights into the inception of states in mainland Europe and, by extension, Western civilization. As Cosmopoulos astutely points out, the transition from anarchy to structured governance shapes contemporary life, making it crucial to delve into our past for a better understanding of today.

Dr. Cosmopoulos, with a myriad of accolades to his name, has been pivotal in bridging the gap between ancient Greek civilization and the modern world. His endeavors, which span increasing enrolment in Greek studies at the University of Missouri-St. Louis to establishing cultural centers, aim to reignite an interest in Hellenic traditions, especially among younger generations.

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In an era of rapid change, the significance of historical preservation cannot be overstated. After all, history isn't just about the past; it's the foundation of our future.

Iklaina's Clay Fragment: This is the Oldest Known Decipherable Text in Europe

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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A clay tablet found in Greece bears the oldest decipherable text in Europe as well as the earliest record of the Greek language.

The world of archaeology was fundamentally changed when a tiny clay tablet was unearthed from the ancient site of Iklaina, Greece. A discovery that pushed back the origins of literacy in Europe by centuries, the Iklaina's clay fragment carries extraordinary significance.

According to academics, the wording on this sign, which was once thought to be "magical or mysterious," only survived because of a fire that started in a rubbish heap around 3,500 years ago.

The discovery of this artifact on Iklaina, a small hill near the town of Pylos in southwest Greece, is considered one of the most important archaeological finds in the history of European literature and writing. Dated back to approximately 1450–1350 BC, written by a skilled Greek-speaking Mycenaean scribe, this clay tablet predates any known decipherable writing in Europe, making it a remarkable testament to the early ingenuity of human civilizations in the region.

Linear B script

Linear B was a syllabic script used for writing in Mycenaean Greek, the earliest attested form of Greek. The script predates the Greek alphabet by several centuries.

Linear B, deciphered by English architect and self-taught linguist Michael Ventris —based on the research of American classicist Alice Kober— is the only Bronze Age Aegean script to have been deciphered.

Iklaina’s site

The clay fragment was found during excavations conducted by the Greek Archaeological Society under the direction of Dr. Michalis Kosmopoulos, professor of archeology at St. Louis University in Missouri. The research team used advanced archaeological methods, such as ground-penetrating radar and residue analysis, to carefully uncover and analyze the site. These techniques allowed the archaeologists to avoid potential damage to the artifacts and maximize the information they could glean from the excavations.

According to excavation director Michalis Kosmopoulos, excavations at Iklaina have so far revealed an early Mycenaean palace with enormous terrace walls, frescoes, and a startlingly sophisticated drainage system.

Yet the biggest surprise of the multi-year program was the fragment discovered in 2011, and as Mr. Kosmopoulos noted, that tablet shouldn't have been there.

Iklaina’s palace

First, it was believed that the Mycenaean tablets were not made so long ago. The previous inscription that held the record, which was discovered in the ruins of a palace in what was once the city of Mycenae, was also one of the few significant palaces where inscriptions had previously been discovered.

Although an early Mycenaean palace was visible at the Iklaina archaeological site, by the time the plaque was made, the community had grown into a minor satellite of Pylos, the capital of King Nestor, a significant figure from the Iliad.

This is a rare instance where Greek mythology and archaeology come together.

Excavations at the site of Iklaina

The sign was preserved by the fire

Early examples of the writing system known as Linear B may be seen on the tablet fragment, which is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) high and 1.5 inches (4 cm) broad. Linear B, which was used for a very old form of Greek, included about 87 signs, each of which stood for a syllable.

Iklaina, which is in the process of restoration, would not have been on modern maps were it not for Michael Cosmopoulos' efforts.

Linear B appears to have been employed exclusively by the Mycenaeans to record economic issues that were important to the ruling class. According to the experts, the dots on the sign's face appear to create a verb that has to do with construction.

A list of names and numbers can be seen on the reverse, which may represent a property list.

The clay was not meant to last as these records often only stayed in storage for one fiscal year. These inscriptions were exceedingly delicate because they weren't cooked but rather sun-dried.

Basically, someone dumped the sign into the pit and lit his trash on fire. The sign was saved and made harder by the fire.

a piece of writing with a magical, mysterious quality, or just a sample of Mycenaean bureaucracy?

According to Thomas Palaima, an administrator at the University of Austin in Texas and an expert in Mycenaean tablets, the Iklaina tablet is a rare discovery.

The hand-made piece could provide information about how the ancient Greek kingdoms were governed in addition to its age, he continued.

For instance, archaeologists once believed that these tablets were only created and preserved in the major cities, or "palatial centers," like Pylos and Mycenae.

The Iklaina tablet, which was discovered in the ruins of a low-class settlement, may show that bureaucracy and education were less centralized than previously believed in the late Mycenaean period.

The discovery of Iklaina's clay fragment also impacts our understanding of Mycenaean state formation. Previously, it was believed that the Mycenaean palatial system, characterized by a complex administrative bureaucracy, developed around 1400 BC. However, the tablet, dated to an earlier period, suggests that the development of this sophisticated system happened earlier than previously thought, challenging existing theories and providing new avenues for exploration in Mycenaean studies.

The ability to read and write during the Mycenaean period, according to Palaima, was extremely rare and was generally regarded as being supernatural or mysterious.

Once the ancient Greek alphabet outgrew Linear B and eventually developed into the 26 letters, it took anywhere between 400 and 600 years for the written word to become understood in Greece.

The Iklaina clay fragment signifies more than just an ancient piece of record-keeping. It is a testament to the evolution of human communication and a witness to the birth of literacy in Europe. This humble artifact underscores the fact that even the smallest piece of our past can have profound implications for our understanding of human history.

It might just be a small clay fragment, but the Iklaina tablet has opened a significant window into a world that existed nearly 3500 years ago. As we continue to decode its secrets, we can hope to further enrich our understanding of early European civilizations and the complexities of their systems of governance and communication. Thus, the Iklaina's clay fragment stands as a beacon of our early literacy, lighting the way to a deeper comprehension of our shared past.

The "Kafkania pebble": Is this the first ever Early Greek Liner B inscription?

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Hailing from the Mycenaean civilization of the Late Bronze Age, the Linear B script, deciphered in the mid-20th century by British cryptographer Michael Ventris, offers invaluable insights into the roots of the Greek language. As an evolved form of the Minoan Linear A script, Linear B, though syllabic in nature, played a pivotal role in administrative tasks, recording transactions, and maintaining inventory. Its legacy, firmly embedded in thousands of clay tablets, provides an extraordinary window into the socio-economic and religious dimensions of life in Mycenaean Greece around 1450 BCE.

The Kafkania pebble is a tiny, rounded river stone that measures about 5 centimeters (2.0 in) in length and is etched with Linear B symbols and a double axe symbol. It was discovered on April 1, 1994, at Kafkania, about 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) north of Olympia, in an archaeological environment from the 17th century BC.

If it were authentic, it would be by far the first piece of Linear B writing to exist on the Greek mainland. Moreover, the Kafkania pebble would have needed to be there two or more millennia prior to the oldest Linear B writings. However, it is almost certainly a recent counterfeit or fraud.

Inscription

The stone has a brief inscription on it written in Linear B using eight syllabic characters that could mean a-so-na, qo-ro-qa, or qa-jo. A double-axe symbol is displayed on the reverse side. Some claim that the inscription is in Mycenean Greek; however, this assertion is still debatable. Such a singular instance of linear B writing has been hypothesized to represent, at best, an early level of Mycenaean writing at the time of genesis.

G. Owens contends that the inscription is not Mycenaean but rather Minoan in origin. The text could have been composed by a Minoan for a Mycenaean. There is no proof that Mycenaean Greek writers existed prior to the Knossos Linear B repository.

Forgery

Several specialists in Mycenaean epigraphy have expressed serious doubts about the authenticity of the inscription; indications that it is a modern forgery include:

• Inscriptions on pebbles are otherwise unknown in Mycenaean and Minoan epigraphy.

• The "rays" surrounding the axe have no parallels in Mycenaean or Minoan iconography.

• Most of the symbols are "carefully executed" but one appears to be a "random graffito".

• Its context, imbedded in a wall, is peculiar and unprecedented.

• Linear B is otherwise consistently written left-to-right, but the inscription is apparently written in boustrophedon.

• The writing style appears anachronistic.

• It is unlikely on historical grounds that Linear B writing then existed in the northwest Peloponnese.

• Finally, the pebble was apparently discovered on the morning of April Fool's Day. If it is indeed a forgery, the symbols spelling a-so-na may spell out the name Iasonas, the first name of the son of Xeni Arapojanni and Jörg Rambach, the alleged discoverers of the pebble.

Ritual Human Sacrifice in Mycenaean Crete? A skull of a young girl puzzles experts

By Archaeology & Arts

In Aulis, it was perhaps a fair wind that had to be secured by Iphigenia’s sacrifice, but in ancient Kydonia, on the Kasteli hill of Chania in Crete, it was an earthquake and the chthonic deities that, according to the customs and “logic” of the time, needed to be placated by the ancient Kydonians resorting to human sacrifice(s)…

Almost 40 years ago (1979) in Knossos, the British scholar of Minoan culture Peter Warren had located children’s bones with knife traces on them – a finding interpreted as “cannibalism”—and in Archanes of the same period, the late archaeologist Yannis Sakellarakis had also found the bones of a young man killed by a knife and had interpreted it as a ritual sacrifice. Both scholars had been taunted at the time as “insulting” the superior Greek race, making scientists even today exceptionally skeptical about such interpretations and conclusions. However, Maria Vlazaki-Andreadaki, archaeologist and excavator these last ten years at ancient Kydonia is very clear about the above. “We cannot avoid mentioning human sacrifice in Minoan Crete. Finding the bones of the young woman, studying them, reassembling them on the skull, and observing their being split with a sharp instrument at their ‘seams’ in conjunction with ritual acts, should not be surprising, since Greek mythology has abundant examples of purifying sacrifices of virgins, in society’s effort to face a great disaster, in times of famine or other exceptional circumstances and often before the outbreak of war. The myths of virgins in the role of scapegoat, perhaps dating back to Mycenaean times, are presented as acts of deep submission and devotion to the divine, as acts of awe and purification, as a kind of negotiation with the supreme powers and not as savage and unscrupulous slaughter,” says Mrs. Andreadaki-Vlazaki to the Athens and Macedonian News Agency.

The skull of a young girl was found among animal skulls, but not whole however. Photo credit: ANA-MPA / Maria Andreadaki-Vlazaki

“Ritual human sacrifice in the Mycenaean palace of Kydonia” was the topic of the lecture given at the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki in 2017 by Mrs Andreadaki-Vlazaki, head of the excavations in the region. She may have been in Northern Greece in her position as Secretary General of the Ministry of Culture and Sports (she opened two exhibitions in Thessaloniki and visited the archaeological site of Dion), but chose her long-standing scientific status for a most interesting lecture attended mainly by colleagues, archaeologists and professors of the Aristotle University, whose questions she answered after her talk.

The Minoan-Mycenaean palace of Kydonia, Crete

– How had the sacrifice taken place? – Had the woman first been put to death and then dismembered? – Were the bones of the human head found at the same place (altar?) as the bones of sacrificed animals?- Is this ultimately the first confirmed human sacrifice of the Mycenaean world?

Though Mrs Andreadaki-Vlazaki was clear, her replies were restrained. She prefers to talk in detail about two more Linear B tablets found on the southwest end of the excavation on Katre Street, about the seal, unique in Minoan art, of the “Despotis Theron” [Master of the Animals] (1420-1400 BC), depicting a young man standing with the city at his feet, about five pairs of wild goat horns and the four vases, typical samples from Kydonia workshops dating to the first half of the 13th century BC. She attributes the marking of the time of a particular event that took place in the palace courtyard and was sealed by a great disaster (according to geophysical prospection and calculations by professors of the Technical University of Crete, the earthquake’s magnitude was between 6.5-7.5 on the Richter scale and completely destroyed the settlement) to the blood and bloodless sacrifices and their rituals in the region, to bone deposits, the Archive of the City at the entrance to the palaces, the magnitude of the earthquake (6.5-7.5 on the Richter scale) to the “tasteless” – the inedible sacrifice…

“It is reasonable for the same people to come after the earthquake, to remove the pieces of the broken floor and make a macabre sacrifice in the actual ceremonial courtyard; a sacrifice to the chthonic powers to be protected by them and be removed from the evil. This sacrifice consisted of animal parts and … a human life! A woman was offered up to the chthonic gods. And to avoid them being consumed by anyone, the slaughtered remains were cut up and covered with stones and slabs (perhaps a custom of the time—especially in sacrifices to the chthonic gods) …” says Mrs Andreadaki-Vlazaki to the Athens and Macedonian News Agency.

The skull of a young girl was found among animal skulls, but not whole however. Photo credit: ANA-MPA / Maria Andreadaki-Vlazaki

“What we expected was uncovered from under the stones in the eastern part: the skull of a young girl among animal skulls, but not whole however. It was cut up, like all the other bones. It was opened up exactly on the suture lines/joins, preceded by a sword cut on the right parietal and occipital bones, and then scattered among animal skulls (of at least two goats and a pig). It is true. The human skull had been cut up, perhaps the rest of the body as well and in the same way as the animals. The two parietals, the occipital and the frontal bones that have come to light are not shattered but opened up on their natural sutures and scattered. Close to them is the right lower jaw. It is a shocking image”. the speaker pointed out during her lecture in the packed Manolis Andronikos Hall of the Museum.

“From the evidence presented, it is thought that three occurrences took place during the last days in the court yard:

1. An earthquake came first, followed by a fire that burned everything,

2. Elevated sections were removed from parts of the floor and the deposition was made right here, after the final sacrifice made up of the young woman, 43 sheep and goats, 4 pigs and an ox; the culmination of that time’s human agony and superstition, so as to placate the demons, chthonic powers and deities.

3. After the slaughtered remains were deposited, a great aftershock occurred and destroyed everything left standing without being accompanied by a fire, so that is why the bones show no signs of being burnt. This last seismic episode led to total destruction, sealing the entire ruined building and thus keeping this moment frozen in time until now, when we have inevitably disturbed it …”, Mrs Andreadaki-Vlazaki pointed out, reminding her colleagues, archaeologists and excavators, that … “An excavation is a ‘disaster’, we archaeologists say and perhaps we are not always ‘unfair’…”