The steppe hypothesis, which posits that the spread of Indo-European languages and associated cultural elements originated from the Pontic-Caspian steppe, has significantly influenced our understanding of prehistoric Europe. However, archaeological evidence from southern Scandinavia presents challenges to this hypothesis, particularly concerning the timeline and modes of cultural transmission. This article explores these issues published by Iversen, R., in his new research titled “Indo-European Interfaces: Integrating Linguistics, Mythology, and Archaeology.” By examining the iconography, mythology, and language in Neolithic and Early Bronze Age southern Scandinavia, Iversen highlights the complexity of cultural interactions and the limitations of the steppe hypothesis as a singular explanatory model.
Neolithic Iconography and Megalithic Art
In southern Scandinavia, the Neolithic period was marked by aniconic geometric motifs rather than figurative representations. These motifs, found on large stones and megalithic tombs, are part of a broader tradition of megalithic art spread across western Europe. This artistic expression remained consistent throughout the Neolithic period, emphasizing abstract patterns over human forms.
Statue Menhirs and Anthropomorphic Representations
Contrastingly, western Europe and regions further east, including the North Pontic area and the Altai Mountains, saw the emergence of elaborate anthropomorphic standing stones or statue menhirs during the late 4th and early 3rd millennia BC. These statue menhirs depicted human figures with detailed features, suggesting new social structures, elite groups, and possibly Indo-European mythologies. Despite the widespread presence of Corded Ware/Yamnaya influences in southern Scandinavia around 2800 BC, this region did not adopt similar anthropomorphic representations until the Early Bronze Age, circa the 2nd millennium BC.
Corded Ware Culture and Early Indo-European Influences
The Corded Ware culture, which emerged in southern Scandinavia during the early 3rd millennium BC, is often associated with the spread of Indo-European languages. This culture introduced significant changes in material culture, such as single graves, cord-decorated pottery, and stone battle-axes. However, these changes did not immediately include the figurative iconography or mythological elements typical of early Indo-European societies.
Second Wave of Indo-Europeanization
The Early Bronze Age in southern Scandinavia, beginning around 1700 BC, saw a marked shift in iconography with the introduction of human representations and motifs linked to Indo-European mythology. This period is characterized by a second wave of steppe innovations, including the use of domesticated horses, chariots, and wool production. These elements suggest a renewed phase of Indo-European influences distinct from the initial Corded Ware introduction.
Conclusion
The archaeological evidence from southern Scandinavia indicates that the Indo-Europeanization of this region was not a singular event but involved at least two major phases of steppe influence. The first phase, associated with the Corded Ware culture, brought about changes in material culture and burial practices but did not include the full suite of Indo-European cultural elements. The second phase, during the Early Bronze Age, introduced significant iconographic and mythological changes, aligning more closely with Indo-European traditions. This dual-phase model challenges the steppe hypothesis as a sole explanatory framework, highlighting the complex and multi-faceted nature of cultural transmission in prehistoric Europe.
