The Mongol Empire (1206–1368 CE), founded by Genghis Khan, became the largest contiguous empire in history, stretching from Eastern Europe to China, Persia, and India. Despite their reputation as fierce warriors, the Mongols had a rich and structured society with nomadic traditions, strong family ties, and an efficient military system.
This article explores daily life in the Mongol Empire, including social structure, family life, occupations, diet, religion, military organization, and cultural practices.
1. Social Structure and Government
A Society Built on Merit
Mongol society was hierarchical but flexible, allowing talented individuals to rise through the ranks.
The Khan (Emperor) – The supreme ruler, often chosen by a council of nobles.
Nobility (Noyan and Princes) – Aristocrats who controlled lands and armies.
Warriors – Every able-bodied man was a soldier, forming the empire’s backbone.
Commoners (Herder-Nomads, Artisans, and Merchants) – Provided goods, animals, and supplies.
Slaves and Captives – Prisoners of war who served Mongol households or worked in various roles.
Genghis Khan introduced a merit-based system, promoting individuals based on loyalty and ability, rather than birthright.
Government and Law
The Mongols governed through a legal code called the Yassa, which:
Enforced religious tolerance.
Punished theft, betrayal, and disobedience harshly.
Regulated trade, diplomacy, and military service.
The Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace) allowed safe trade and communication across Asia and Europe.
2. Family Life and Gender Roles
Marriage and Family
Marriages were arranged, often to strengthen political alliances.
Women had strong roles, managing households while men were at war.
Polygamy was common, especially among the elite.
Women’s Rights
Mongol women had more freedom than their counterparts in other civilizations:
They could own property and influence politics.
Some women, like Töregene Khatun, ruled as regents.
They rode horses, fought in battles, and managed trade and herding.
Children learned horseback riding, archery, and survival skills from an early age.
3. Housing and Nomadic Life
The Yurt (Ger)
Mongols lived in circular tents called yurts, made of felt and wood.
Portable – Easily assembled and transported on oxen or camels.
Warm and sturdy – Insulated against harsh weather.
Social space – The hearth was sacred, and guests were received with hospitality.
Inside, the men sat on the western side, women on the eastern, and the altar faced the entrance.
Seasonal Migration
Mongols moved seasonally to find fresh grazing lands for their livestock:
Winter – Stayed near rivers and valleys.
Summer – Moved to cooler, mountainous regions.
4. Economy and Trade
Livestock: The Foundation of Mongol Economy
The Mongols relied on herding for survival, with livestock providing:
Meat (sheep, goat, horse, and yak).
Milk (fermented into kumis, a popular drink).
Wool (for clothing and yurts).
Horses (used for travel, war, and trade).
Trade and the Silk Road
The Mongols revitalized the Silk Road, connecting China, the Middle East, and Europe.
Merchants were protected and given tax benefits.
Goods like silk, spices, furs, and gold were exchanged.
Cities such as Karakorum, Samarkand, and Baghdad flourished as trade centers.
They also introduced paper money, making transactions easier.
5. Food and Diet
Staple Foods
Meat-heavy diet – Sheep, goat, horse, yak, and wild game.
Dairy products – Kumis (fermented mare’s milk), yogurt, butter, and cheese.
Borts (dried meat) – A protein-rich travel food.
Millet and rice – Adopted from China and Persia.
Feasting and Hospitality
Guests were offered meat, dairy, and fermented drinks. Declining food was seen as disrespectful.
Noble feasts featured roasted lamb, dumplings, and alcohol (airag and rice wine).
6. Religion and Spiritual Beliefs
Tengrism: The Mongol Faith
The Mongols practiced Tengrism, a belief in:
Tengri (Sky God) as the supreme deity.
Nature spirits and ancestor worship.
Shamans, who performed rituals, healed the sick, and guided warriors.
Religious Tolerance
Mongol rulers allowed Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Daoism to flourish in their empire.
Kublai Khan, for example, embraced Buddhism, while others favored Islam.
7. Military Life and Warfare
A Warrior Society
Every Mongol man was a trained soldier.
Boys learned horseback riding and archery from childhood.
Warriors carried bows, swords, lances, and shields.
The army used psychological warfare, ambushes, and speed to dominate enemies.
Mongol Cavalry
Light cavalry – Fast, skilled in mounted archery.
Heavy cavalry – Armored, used for direct combat.
Tactics and Organization
The army was divided into tumens (10,000 soldiers).
Communication was swift using horse messengers and signals.
They used fake retreats and encirclements to confuse enemies.
The Mongols conquered vast territories using superior strategy and discipline.
8. Education and Writing
Learning and Knowledge
Most Mongols were illiterate, but they valued oral storytelling.
Under Kublai Khan, Mongols adopted Chinese, Persian, and Uyghur scripts.
Foreign scholars were invited to Karakorum and Beijing to share knowledge.
Marco Polo and Foreign Accounts
European visitors like Marco Polo wrote about Mongol wealth, organization, and tolerance.
9. Entertainment and Festivals
Games and Sports
Archery competitions tested warrior skills.
Wrestling was a national sport.
Horse racing was a favorite pastime.
Board games like Shatar (Mongol chess) were popular.
Naadam Festival
Held annually, featuring horse racing, wrestling, and archery, it still exists in modern Mongolia.
Music and Storytelling
Mongols loved epic tales, sung by bards.
Instruments like the morin khuur (horsehead fiddle) were common.
10. The Legacy of Mongol Daily Life
The Mongol Empire shaped Eurasian history through:
Trade and cultural exchange along the Silk Road.
Religious tolerance and governance systems.
Military innovations that influenced future empires.
Even after the empire's decline, Mongol traditions persisted in Central Asia, Russia, and China, influencing the cultures they ruled.
Conclusion
Daily life in the Mongol Empire was a mix of nomadic traditions, military discipline, and cosmopolitan trade. Their warrior culture, strong family ties, and openness to different religions made them one of history’s most formidable and influential civilizations.
