The Remarkable Engineering of Roman Roads: A Legacy of Durability and Precision

Roman roads have long been admired for their durability and advanced construction techniques, playing an essential role in the expansion and governance of the Roman Empire. These roads were more than mere routes; they were carefully designed and constructed pathways that connected cities, military outposts, and ports across thousands of miles. Their longevity is a testament to Roman engineering prowess, with many of these roads still intact today. This article will explore the methods Romans used to construct these enduring pathways, the reasons behind their remarkable durability, and the logistics behind their construction timeline.

How Were Roman Roads Constructed?

The Romans employed a meticulous, multi-layered process to construct their roads, which provided both stability and durability. Here’s a step-by-step breakdown of the construction technique:

1. Surveying and Planning: Roman engineers, known as agrimensores (land surveyors), first marked out the road route using tools like the groma and chorobates, which allowed for precise alignment and leveling. They aimed for direct paths, regardless of natural obstacles, which were either bridged or tunneled through when possible.

2. Excavation and Foundation: Once the path was marked, laborers would excavate a trench, which varied in depth depending on the terrain and intended use of the road. This trench was foundational, as it provided stability for the road structure.

3. Layering Materials: Roman roads were constructed in multiple layers, each with specific materials and purposes to ensure stability and drainage:

   • Statumen: The first layer was a base of large stones or rubble (usually around 20 cm thick), which provided a solid foundation.

   • Rudus: Above this was a layer of smaller stones and mortar, approximately 25 cm thick. The use of mortar was essential in binding the materials and providing a robust underlayer.

   • Nucleus: Next was a layer of finer gravel or crushed stones, which formed a solid yet smoother surface. This layer was usually around 20 cm thick.

   • Pavimentum: Finally, on top was a layer of polygonal stone slabs, fitted closely together to form a durable surface. The stones were often cut to create a cambered shape, allowing water to drain off easily to the sides.

4. Cambering and Drainage: One of the crucial aspects of Roman road durability was its effective drainage system. The Romans used a slight camber (curved shape) to ensure water runoff, preventing pooling and erosion. Ditches or culverts on either side of the road carried away the excess water.

5. Finishing Touches: Some roads included raised curbs, particularly in urban areas, to separate pedestrian areas from the main path. Occasionally, they installed milestones and inscriptions to indicate distances and directions, adding utility to the road’s design.

Why Are Roman Roads So Durable?

Several factors contributed to the extraordinary durability of Roman roads:

• High-Quality Materials: The Romans selected materials based on the terrain and climate. In volcanic regions, they utilized volcanic stone for added durability, and in other areas, they incorporated local materials, optimizing each road’s resilience.

• Layered Structure: The multi-layered structure of Roman roads helped distribute weight effectively. This layering prevented the surface from sinking or cracking under the weight of carts, animals, and pedestrians.

• Cambered Design: The slight upward curve in the center of the road was a masterstroke in road engineering, as it directed water away from the road surface. This design minimized water damage, which is a primary cause of wear and erosion in roadways.

• Regular Maintenance: The Romans established a network of inspectors who oversaw maintenance, ensuring that damaged sections were quickly repaired. This proactive approach helped preserve the structural integrity of the roads.

• Strategic Alignment and Construction: Roman engineers preferred straight roads, which minimized stress points and reduced wear. Additionally, they adapted the road’s depth and materials to the local environment, ensuring the foundation was stable and resistant to regional weather conditions.

How Thick Was a Roman Road?

Roman roads varied in thickness, but the typical road was around 3 to 5 feet (1 to 1.5 meters) thick. This depth, created by the layered construction method, ensured that the road could bear the weight of heavy traffic without settling or cracking.

In mountainous or marshy regions, Roman engineers sometimes increased the thickness for added stability. Roads in flat, dry areas might be thinner but were still built to last through layers that supported both function and longevity.

How Long Did It Take the Romans to Build a Road?

The time it took to build a Roman road depended on several factors, including the terrain, available labor, and the urgency of the project. Generally, a Roman road could take several months to a few years to complete. For instance, a straight road over a relatively flat landscape could be constructed in less time, sometimes within a year. However, in challenging terrains with obstacles like rivers or mountains, road construction could extend to several years.

The Roman Empire employed a large workforce for road construction, including soldiers, local laborers, and slaves. Military engineers supervised the process, often constructing roads strategically to facilitate troop movement. This mobilization ensured a swift pace, as roads were critical for connecting new territories and securing the empire’s borders.

Conclusion

The engineering marvel of Roman roads lies in their systematic approach to construction, durable materials, and innovative drainage solutions. These roads were much more than mere transportation routes; they symbolized Rome’s technological prowess and administrative reach. From the famous Via Appia in Italy to roads spanning the far reaches of Britain, the longevity of these ancient pathways speaks volumes about the advanced state of Roman engineering.

By understanding the methodology behind these enduring constructions, we gain insight into the Roman Empire's commitment to infrastructure, its understanding of environmental adaptation, and the sheer willpower that went into building a network that united an empire stretching over three continents. Today, Roman roads continue to inspire modern infrastructure, and their legacy endures as a remarkable example of ancient engineering at its finest.

10,000-Year-Old Rock Paintings in Chhattisgarh Hint at Ancient Encounters with "Aliens" and "UFOs"

In the dense forests of Chhattisgarh, India, a remarkable discovery has captured the attention of archaeologists and historians alike. A series of ancient rock paintings dating back approximately 10,000 years depict figures that appear, intriguingly, to resemble modern-day depictions of extraterrestrials and unidentified flying objects (UFOs).

Found in the tribal Bastar region, these rock paintings feature humanoid figures with elongated bodies, large, bulbous heads, and expressions that might remind viewers of the stereotypical image of an alien. Some illustrations even appear to show disc-like objects that resemble the classic "flying saucer" shape seen in popular media and UFO lore.

The unusual features of these paintings have led some archaeologists to speculate about what might have inspired them. The local villagers hold their own explanations, rooted in tribal folklore passed down through generations. They refer to ancient stories about "rohela people"—small, mysterious beings who came from the sky and whisked people away, only for them to return shortly after. This legend, according to the locals, bears a striking resemblance to contemporary narratives of alien abductions.

J.R. Bhagat, an archaeologist from the state’s archaeology department, has studied these intriguing rock paintings in depth. He notes that while it’s challenging to definitively link the artwork to extraterrestrial life, the imagery does seem unlike anything typically seen in ancient rock art. Bhagat acknowledges that the resemblance to aliens and UFOs might be coincidental, but the suggestion of an otherworldly connection continues to intrigue both scientists and the public.

Chhattisgarh's government is now considering consulting national and international space agencies, including the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and NASA, to help decipher the mystery behind these figures. The experts hope to gain insights into whether these paintings might symbolize ancient people's experiences or imaginations of celestial events, which they could have interpreted in visual forms.

While the debate about ancient alien contact remains contentious within the scientific community, the discovery of these paintings adds a new layer to the global intrigue surrounding prehistoric encounters with "otherworldly" beings. Researchers believe that studying these images might shed light not only on early human creativity but also on how ancient cultures possibly conceptualized the cosmos.

For now, the paintings in Chhattisgarh remain an enigmatic artifact—a portal into the lives, imaginations, and beliefs of people who lived thousands of years ago. Whether inspired by real encounters or merely by myth, these images remain a testament to humanity’s age-old curiosity about the unknown.

Mystery of 18,000-Year-Old ‘Puppy’ Found Frozen in Ice Solved by Scientists

An ancient mystery buried in Siberian ice for 18,000 years has finally been solved. Discovered in 2018, a remarkably well-preserved pup, nicknamed Dogor, sparked international curiosity and debate: was this mummified creature the oldest known dog? After years of research, scientists now have the answer — and it’s not what anyone expected.

Dogor, with his fur, teeth, and whiskers intact, seemed to be a pristine snapshot from the Ice Age. Experts hoped his genome might provide insights into the origins of man's best friend. But after extensive genetic testing, researchers from the Francis Crick Institute in London have confirmed that Dogor was not a dog at all but rather a wolf. Surprisingly, he doesn’t appear to be closely related to the earliest domesticated dogs.

Anders Bergström, a postdoctoral researcher in ancient genomics, explained that this finding reshapes our understanding of dog domestication. “We know that dogs were the first animals domesticated by humans during the Ice Age,” Bergström told Live Science, “but the details surrounding their domestication are still a major mystery.” Dogor's discovery adds a new piece to the puzzle, revealing the complexity of the wolf lineage from which dogs eventually emerged.

The researchers analyzed Dogor’s DNA alongside that of 72 other ancient wolves, including 66 genomes sequenced for the first time. Their results indicate that while domestication of dogs likely began between 30,000 and 14,000 years ago, pinpointing the exact time and location remains challenging due to the genetic diversity among ancient wolves. However, the study found that modern dogs are more closely related to wolves from eastern Eurasia, suggesting that domestication probably began in Asia rather than Europe.

Despite this revelation, Bergström and his team acknowledge that there are still big gaps in understanding exactly how and when dogs diverged from wolves. But one thing is clear: Dogor’s mummified body, a frozen link to the ancient past, has brought scientists closer to understanding the origins of our enduring bond with dogs. While much remains to be discovered, Dogor’s true identity as a wolf marks an important step in decoding the long, shared history between humans and their loyal companions.

The "Greek Toe" of the Caryatids: Can Your Feet Reveal Your Greek Ancestry?

If you have a long second toe, you might have heard it called “Greek foot” or “flame foot”—a distinct trait where the second toe is longer than the big toe and the others. Though often linked with Greek ancestry, this trait is actually an inherited genetic variation that isn’t confined to any one ethnicity.

What Is "Greek Foot" and Where Did It Come From?

This foot shape, with a prominent second toe, is known scientifically as Morton’s toe. Named after the American orthopedist Dudley Morton, it affects the way weight is distributed across the foot and can sometimes lead to specific foot issues due to this altered weight distribution. Interestingly, this type of foot structure was idealized in Greek art and sculpture, seen in iconic figures like the Caryatids and other famous statues.

The concept of the “Greek foot” can be traced back to the aesthetic ideals of Ancient Greece. The Greeks considered this foot shape harmonious, and it became a defining feature in their depictions of the human form. This visual ideal was not just an artistic choice but also found its way into Greek architecture and geometry, influencing proportions in design and even economic practices. The famous Caryatids—stone maidens holding up the Erechtheion in Athens—are perfect examples, each displaying this classic "Greek toe."

Greek Foot in Genetics: An Inherited Trait, Not Greek Ancestry

Despite its association with Greek heritage, having a “Greek foot” is more about genetics than lineage. Studies show that this foot shape is actually an X-linked recessive trait, meaning the gene responsible for the longer second toe is located on the X chromosome. This trait can be passed down through families, but it isn’t exclusive to people of Greek descent. Populations all over the world have this feature, including groups as far-flung as the Ainu of Japan and certain indigenous groups in South America.

The Prevalence of Greek Foot Across Cultures

Estimates on how common “Greek foot” actually is vary, with research suggesting prevalence rates between 5% and 30% worldwide. This wide range might be due to how different populations inherit the trait and how often it’s passed along. Despite its name, “Greek foot” is not unique to Greece and has even been observed in Celtic ancestry, sometimes referred to as “Celtic foot.”

So, if you have a long second toe, you share a trait with various cultures and ancient artistic ideals. It’s an inherited quirk rather than a genealogical signature of Greek heritage.

The Physical Impact: Does Greek Foot Give You an Advantage?

Having a longer second toe doesn’t just alter appearance—it can also affect foot mechanics. Morton’s toe can sometimes lead to discomfort due to uneven weight distribution. Those with Greek foot may experience specific types of foot pain or even calluses if they frequently wear ill-fitting shoes.

However, some suggest that Greek foot might offer an advantage in certain athletic activities. A 2004 study showed this trait was more common in professional athletes, potentially because it changes balance and how pressure is applied to the foot. This might mean a slight edge in sports that involve a lot of running or jumping, though this theory needs further research.

A Universal Trait in a Unique Context

Greek foot, while widely recognized for its prevalence in Greek art and sculpture, isn’t limited to Greece or even Europe. It's a fascinating example of how genetic traits can cross boundaries, showing up in people across continents and cultures. So, the next time you catch a glimpse of a statue with a pronounced second toe, remember: it’s not just a Greek trait, but part of a global genetic tapestry.

Sensual Divinity: The Sexual Artistic Trends of 3rd Century Ancient Indian Sculpture

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The early centuries of the Common Era marked a significant period in the history of Indian art, particularly in the realm of sculpture, where sensuality and spirituality seamlessly converged to create evocative representations of divine and human forms. Around 200 AD, the region of Mathura emerged as a pivotal center for artistic development, where the sculpting of human and divine figures reflected not only remarkable craftsmanship but also profound religious and cultural symbolism. This era, characterized by its intricate and sensuous depictions of the human body, particularly the female form, showcased a blend of artistic innovation and spiritual representation.

The Cultural and Religious Context

In ancient Indian culture, religious beliefs were deeply intertwined with the visual arts. The creation of sculptures was not merely an aesthetic pursuit but a medium to express the divine nature of gods, goddesses, and semi-divine beings. The period around 200 AD was influenced by both Hindu and Buddhist religious narratives, with sculptures embodying themes of fertility, prosperity, and divine femininity. This convergence of art and spirituality was epitomized through the depiction of nature spirits known as yakshis, who were believed to symbolize the generative power of the earth and its natural bounty.

Intense Representations of the Feminine Form

The sculptures of this era are often noted for their intense and exaggerated features, particularly in the representation of the female body. These figures typically displayed ample curves, adorned with intricate jewelry and clothing that emphasized, rather than concealed, their physical forms. The sensuous portrayal of the feminine was not intended to evoke mere eroticism but was symbolic of fertility and life-giving energy. The detailed depiction of voluptuous hips, full breasts, and a confident stance was meant to convey a sense of nurturing abundance and the divine aspects of womanhood.

This celebration of the feminine form was deeply rooted in the cultural recognition of the divine feminine, embodied by goddesses such as Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity, and Parvati, the consort of Shiva. Additionally, yakshis, as nature spirits, were popular subjects, serving as representations of fertility and the vital forces of nature.

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Notable Examples of Sculptural Masterpieces

Several surviving sculptures from this period illustrate the artistic mastery and thematic focus of the time:

1. The Terracotta Plaques of Bengal: These intricate plaques, often depicting divine and semi-divine figures with sensuous, dynamic postures, showcase the emphasis on fertility and abundance.

2. The Kushan Period Yakshis: Distinctive for their full-bodied depictions, these sculptures highlight the elaborate detailing of adornments and the tribhanga pose, emphasizing movement and grace.

3. The Nagarjunakonda Sculptures: Found in Andhra Pradesh, these depict various scenes from life and mythology, including figures of goddesses and yakshis with flowing garments and bejeweled bodies that enhance their sensual appeal.

4. The Ganga and Yamuna Sculptures at the Temple Entrances: These river goddesses, often placed at the entrance of temples, symbolize purity and prosperity, depicted with detailed carvings that celebrate the divine feminine form.

5. The Yakshi of Didarganj: One of the most celebrated sculptures, the Didarganj Yakshi, hails from the 3rd century BCE but continued to inspire artists in the following centuries. This sandstone statue features an exquisitely carved figure holding a fly-whisk, adorned with heavy necklaces and a flowing garment that accentuates her curvaceous form.

6. The Mathura Yakshi: Originating from Mathura itself, this sculpture exemplifies the region’s style with a robust, sensuous depiction of the female body. The yakshi figures from Mathura were often depicted standing in graceful tribhanga (triple-bend) poses that conveyed fluidity and life, emphasizing their association with growth and fertility.

7. The Standing Buddha of Mathura: While not focused solely on the feminine, the Standing Buddha sculpture from this era is noteworthy for integrating the naturalistic and somewhat sensual depiction of the human body with spiritual themes. This sculpture shows the Buddha with soft, rounded features and a serene expression, embodying both the physical and spiritual ideals of the time.

Symbolism and Interpretation

The emphasis on the human body, particularly the feminine form, had a deep symbolic resonance. The lush depictions signified the interconnectedness of human beauty, divine power, and the earth’s fertility. To ancient viewers, these sculptures evoked awe and reverence, serving as reminders of the sacred nature of life and creation. Such representations aligned with the broader cultural acknowledgment of shakti, the divine feminine energy that pervades the universe.

The artistic trends of 200 AD in India, especially from regions like Mathura, represent a profound fusion of spirituality and sensuality. The sculptures, marked by their intense and beautiful depictions of the human form, continue to fascinate historians and art enthusiasts for their masterful craftsmanship and rich cultural symbolism. They stand as testaments to an era that celebrated the sanctity of life and the divine feminine, intertwining the physical with the metaphysical in ways that still resonate in modern interpretations of art and spirituality.

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To support further reading, here are some relevant and credible sources for the topic of ancient Indian art and sculpture:

1. The British Museum's South Asia Collection: British Museum - South Asia Collection

2. Khan Academy - Art History on Ancient India: Khan Academy - Indian Art

3. The Metropolitan Museum of Art - Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Met Museum - Indian Sculpture

4. Archaeological Survey of India (ASI): Archaeological Survey of India

5. JSTOR and Project MUSE for academic papers and in-depth analyses: JSTOR Project MUSE

These resources provide insights into the cultural and artistic context of ancient Indian sculptures, their symbolism, and their continued significance.

The Timeless Elegance of Etruscan Art: The Sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa

The sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa, discovered at Poggio Cantarello in Tuscany and dating to 150-140 BC, stands as a testament to the intricate artistry and cultural richness of Etruscan society. This brightly painted terracotta masterpiece is housed in the British Museum, where it continues to captivate scholars and visitors alike with its elaborate detail and symbolism.

Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa, whose name is inscribed in Etruscan script at the base of the chest, belonged to one of the wealthiest families of Chiusi, an important Etruscan city. The sarcophagus reflects not only her elite status but also the intricate craftsmanship characteristic of Etruscan funerary art. Etruscan society placed great emphasis on the afterlife, with a particular focus on ensuring the deceased were remembered and honored. This sarcophagus embodies these beliefs through its lifelike representation of the deceased and the elaborate adornments that accompany her.

The sculptural representation of Seianti portrays her reclining gracefully on a shallow mattress, propped up by a plump pillow, a position that echoes the scenes of banqueting and leisure commonly depicted in Etruscan art. This pose reflects not only comfort but a form of eternal repose, suggesting that the afterlife was seen as a continuation of the pleasures of life. She holds an open-lidded mirror, an attribute symbolizing femininity and possibly self-awareness or introspection, while her right hand is raised to adjust her cloak, imbuing the figure with a sense of natural movement and grace.

The attire of Seianti further emphasizes her high status. She wears an ornate gown and cloak, intricately draped to fall in fluid, sinuous folds over her form. Such drapery, expertly rendered in terracotta, showcases the skill of Etruscan artisans in achieving a lifelike and dynamic representation of textiles. The figure is also adorned with a tiara, earrings, bracelets, and a necklace, each detail underscoring the wealth and fashion of the Etruscan elite.

Inside the sarcophagus, the skeletal remains confirmed the identity of the deceased as a woman aged approximately 50-55 years. This age suggests that Seianti lived a full life, a noteworthy detail in an era when life expectancy was often shorter. The discovery of this sarcophagus provides not only an artistic triumph but also an intimate look into the societal roles and status of Etruscan women.

Etruscan art, as exemplified by Seianti’s sarcophagus, had profound influences that extended well beyond their own civilization. The Etruscans were known for their unique synthesis of Greek and Italic artistic traditions, blending them into a distinctive style that highlighted both their technical skill and their cultural values. Elements such as the reclining pose and the use of terracotta would later inspire Roman funerary practices. The Romans, who inherited much from Etruscan culture following their assimilation, adopted and adapted these artistic conventions, perpetuating the legacy of Etruscan art within their own monuments and sepulchral traditions.

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Etruscans: Italian Civilization Before Ancient Rome

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The sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa is thus more than an exquisite work of art; it is a narrative piece that tells the story of Etruscan social structures, religious beliefs, and artistic achievements. Its enduring presence in the British Museum continues to offer valuable insights into the sophisticated society that once thrived in pre-Roman Italy. Through the life and image of Seianti, modern viewers are invited to glimpse the rich interplay of identity, art, and cultural continuity that defined the Etruscan world.

The Chariot of Monteleone: A Testament to Etruscan Artistry and Cultural Connectivity

The Chariot of Monteleone, an exquisite artifact dating back to approximately 530 BC, stands as a brilliant testament to the advanced craftsmanship and cultural sophistication of the Etruscan civilization. Unearthed in 1902 near Monteleone di Spoleto in Umbria, Italy, this ceremonial chariot is not only a masterpiece of ancient metalwork but also an important symbol of the Etruscans' interaction with neighboring cultures, particularly the Greeks.

The Masterpiece in Detail

The chariot’s most captivating feature is its front panel, adorned with a meticulously crafted depiction of Achilles, the legendary Greek hero. This scene, dynamic and filled with tension, illustrates Achilles in his characteristic heroic poise, clad in detailed armor that showcases intricate artistic techniques. The depiction is not merely decorative; it serves as a narrative tableau that reveals the Etruscans' deep familiarity with Greek mythology and their appreciation for epic themes. This level of detail highlights the technical prowess of Etruscan artisans who seamlessly combined repoussé and engraving techniques to create lifelike scenes that resonate with mythological significance.

Etruscan Art and Influence

The craftsmanship evident in the Chariot of Monteleone is emblematic of the broader artistic excellence of the Etruscans. Renowned for their skill in bronze work, ceramics, and goldsmithing, Etruscan artisans were highly regarded across the Mediterranean. This chariot, with its elaborate panels and harmonious design, exemplifies how Etruscan art was both unique and influenced by other cultures, particularly the Greeks. Greek influence permeated Etruscan art through trade and interaction, resulting in a cultural symbiosis that enriched Etruscan aesthetic expressions.

A Civilization Shaped by Exchange

The Etruscans, who flourished in central Italy between the 8th and 3rd centuries BC, were a highly sophisticated society known for their rich religious traditions, urban planning, and dynamic trade networks. Their cities, such as Tarquinia, Cerveteri, and Vulci, were hubs of cultural and economic activity, facilitating the flow of ideas and goods throughout the Mediterranean.

The Chariot of Monteleone exemplifies the Etruscans' propensity for adopting and adapting external influences. Greek pottery, motifs, and mythological narratives were readily integrated into Etruscan art, showcasing their open-minded approach to cultural synthesis. This was not a one-sided relationship; Etruscan art and religious practices, in turn, left their mark on early Roman culture, shaping the nascent identity of what would become one of history's most influential civilizations.

Legacy and Modern Appreciation

Today, the Chariot of Monteleone is housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, where it continues to captivate scholars and visitors alike. It serves as a window into the world of the Etruscans, illustrating their technical expertise, artistic vision, and the complexity of their cultural engagements. The artifact is more than just an object of beauty; it is a testament to the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations and the enduring legacy of Etruscan craftsmanship.

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The Enigmatic Language of the Etruscans: Non-Indo-European?

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In studying the Chariot of Monteleone, we gain a deeper understanding of how the Etruscans skillfully balanced their unique identity with the influences of neighboring cultures. This artifact, with its vivid depiction of Achilles and the echoes of Greek mythology, remains a powerful symbol of a civilization that thrived on artistry, innovation, and exchange.

The Majestic Giraffes of Niger’s Dabous Carvings

The Dabous Giraffes: A Timeless Connection Between Man and Nature

Over 9,000 years ago, when the Sahara was a lush, green savanna, ancient artists carved a scene that would endure millennia: two towering giraffes, etched into the rocks of what is now Niger’s desert. Hidden in the rugged Aïr Mountains, the Dabous giraffe carvings transport us back to a time when the Sahara was teeming with life, and humans and animals coexisted in a fertile landscape far different from today’s arid expanse.

The carvings, depicting two life-sized giraffes with one guided by a small human figure, serve as a mesmerizing reminder of how vital these animals were to the people of that era. Each giraffe stretches over 18 feet in length, a size that speaks to both the artists' ambition and their reverence for the creatures. The intricate carvings, from the gentle slope of the giraffes' necks to the attentive postures of their heads, capture a moment of interaction between humans and the wildlife that once roamed this savanna.

These giraffes, carved with care and precision, symbolize more than an artistic feat—they embody an era when the land sustained both people and animals in abundance. Scholars believe the carvings may have been ritualistic or symbolic, representing the connection between people and nature, or possibly even a call for prosperity and harmony. The figures hold clues to the daily lives, beliefs, and values of the ancient people who inhabited this once-green Sahara.

Today, the Dabous giraffes are considered among the most significant examples of prehistoric rock art in Africa, if not the world. Their existence reminds us of the Sahara’s forgotten vibrancy, a lush realm transformed over millennia by changing climates. What we see now as an endless stretch of desert was once a landscape of rivers, grasslands, and thriving ecosystems. The Dabous carvings are not only art; they are portals to the past, offering a rare glimpse into a world lost beneath the desert sands.

As the winds erode the stone, the carvings face a fragile future, yet their significance remains etched in history. They remind us that landscapes are not eternal—they evolve, and with them, so does humanity’s relationship with the natural world.

The Dabous giraffes invite us to ponder our place in the changing environment, a reminder that even the grandest ecosystems can transform dramatically over time.

Hundreds of gold coins dating to Rome's Imperial era found in Italy

The remarkable treasure of gold coins from the waning days of the Western Roman Empire, discovered beneath an old theater in Como in 2018, has proven to be even more extraordinary than initially thought.

This find, from its lidded soapstone pot to the meticulously stacked, pristine 5th-century coins, was instantly recognized as a discovery of unparalleled historical significance.

When the discovery was first announced in September 2018, archaeologists had carefully removed the vessel for detailed examination in lab conditions. They initially uncovered 27 gold coins from the reigns of Emperors Honorius (r. 384–423), Valentinian III (r. 425–455), Leo I (r. 457–474), and his brief co-emperor Libius Severus (r. 461–465), estimating the hoard to contain around 300 coins.

In addition, they discovered a gold ingot and two as-yet-unidentified objects, with hopes of more surprises within the densely packed amphora.

Now, after painstakingly extracting the coins one by one, archaeologists have reached a final count: an astonishing 1,000 gold coins, exactly.

Such precise tallying suggests a professional hand—perhaps a skilled accountant, government official, or imperial goldsmith. The majority of the coins—639 in all—were minted in Mediolanum (modern-day Milan), then the capital of the Western Empire, between 395 and 472 A.D. Representing eight emperors and four empresses, 744 of these coins were minted after 455, right up to the empire’s last decades before its fall in 476.

In addition to the coins, the hoard includes raw materials and exquisite examples of fine goldsmithing. There are three large gold rings, likely men’s rings: one octagonal, one set with a high-quality cabochon garnet, and another featuring an intricate basket weave and filigree pattern. The collection also holds three earrings (a pair and an unfinished single earring), an ingot, a gold bar, and delicate gold threads. The ingot, alloyed with silver for added durability, bears signs of being cut and used in crafting precious items.

In total, this treasure represents 11 pounds of gold—an unimaginable fortune, especially in a period when the empire’s economy was deteriorating. Curiously, it was stored in an ordinary, unassuming green soapstone jug, similar to a beer stein, likely made locally. The jug even shows char marks, hinting at its use in cooking. Pliny the Elder noted that soapstone vessels were commonly produced in the Como area (Natural History, Book 37, Chapter 44), a tradition that continues there to this day.

Israeli Airstrikes Rock Historic Lebanese City of Baalbek,

The IDF warned an entire Lebanese city to evacuate as they begun bombarding its outskirts in what they claim is the pursuit of militant group Hezbollah.

Israeli airstrikes pounded the eastern Lebanese city of Baalbek on Wednesday, according to Lebanon’s state-run news agency, hours after the Israeli military issued an evacuation warning for residents in the entire city. 

The city’s ancient Roman temple complex, inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was included in the evacuation warning as well as Baalbek’s surrounding area and key routes to Lebanon’s Bekaa valley. 

Baalbek ( Temple Of Jupiter And Bacchus Temple)

Residents evacuated en-masse with local media footage showing heavy traffic along Lebanese roads exiting the city. 

Footage circulated online showed the onset of airstrikes on Baalbek, with the sound of intense explosions and the cries of children and families who remained in the area. 

ساحة #عرسال منذ قليل#بعلبك_الهرمل#بشير_خضر pic.twitter.com/K6oGsrBBVK

— Bachir Khodr (@BachirKhodr) October 30, 2024

In a post on his social media, local governor Bachir Khodr urged residents to avoid seeking refuge within the city’s Roman temples. Instead, he advised them to head to one of two destinations: Arsal, a town in the Baalbek province about 30km from the city or to the North Governorate. 

Israel claimed to be targeting fuel depots to halt the movement of weapons and artillery from Iran, but did not provide evidence of this activity. 

US State Department spokesperson Matthew Miller said Israel has a responsibility to protect civilian infrastructure and cultural heritage sites.

People check their damaged houses at the site of an Israeli airstrike in Baalbek, east Lebanon, Monday, Oct. 7, 2024.Hassan Ammar/Copyright 2024 The AP. All rights reserved

In the region's deadliest day in a year, more than 60 people were killed in several towns surrounding Baalbek after multiple, overnight Israeli airstrikes into Tuesday.

The army said they were targeting fuel depots to halt the movement of weapons and artillery from Iran, without providing evidence of such activity. 

خريطة توضيحية للأماكن المستهدفة في #بعلبك#بشير_خضر pic.twitter.com/MdgNMAYEj9

— Bachir Khodr (@BachirKhodr) October 30, 2024

The Lebanese health ministry report more than 2,790 people have been killed and 12,700 wounded in Lebanon since 8 October 2023 – when Hezbollah began firing rockets into Israel. 

The conflict escalated sharply last month when Israeli ground forces invaded southern Lebanon. Around 1.2 million Lebanese people have been displaced by the conflict, according to government estimates.

Ancient Roman Forum Discovered, Confirming 200-Year-Old Prediction

Archaeologists have unearthed the remains of an ancient Roman forum in the ruins of Ocuri, a historic city near Ubrique in southern Spain. The discovery, led by the University of Granada (UG), confirms that the forum served as the bustling center of Roman life in Ocuri, situated strategically on the limestone slopes of Cerro de la Mora with sweeping views of the landscape. While the site dates back as far as the sixth century B.C., most of the remaining structures reflect its vibrant Roman era, especially during its peak in the second century A.D.

First uncovered in the late 18th century by local scholar Juan Vegazo, who suspected the central terrace was the forum, the latest excavations by UG validate his theory. The forum, described by UG archaeologist Macarena Bustamante Álvarez as the “heart” of a Roman city, was a lively hub for commercial, political, and religious activities. Key finds include the bases and shafts of columns and a monumental altar, along with remnants of thermal baths, houses, and funerary monuments.

One major discovery extended Ocuri’s occupation timeline: coins bearing early Christian symbols, which show that Ocuri remained inhabited until the late fourth century, nearly a century longer than previously thought. These findings add a new chapter to our understanding of Roman influence on the Iberian Peninsula.

Lost Maya world discovered in 'race against time' to save ancient ruins from growing threat

The "lure of the unknown" drives research, but explorers are close to discovering all of the lost cities. So what will this mean for archeology?

There’s an urgent race to discover lost cities like Valerina (inset) using satellite imaging before they’re destroyed by logging and fire. Source: Getty/ L. Auld-Thomas et al.

Archeologists are in a “race against time” to discover the world’s lost ancient sites before they are destroyed. Trees that protected ancient cities for hundreds of years are being burned, slashed and bulldozed to make way for industrial agriculture and illegal cattle ranching tied to drug running.

The latest discovery was made by PhD student Luke Auld-Thomas as he was trawling through satellite images taken above Mexico. Speaking with Yahoo News, he recalled the exact moment in 2018 he found the Maya city that had been lost for centuries beneath thick forest.

“The first thing I did was strip all the trees away digitally so I could look at the ground, and as soon as I did that it was completely conspicuous what I was looking at,” he said, revealing a new laser technology called Lidar was used during the process.

Towering large quadrangular buildings were the first sign he'd found a city as they are a hallmark of all Maya culture. But it wasn’t initially clear just how big his discovery was.

The nearby Maya city of Calakmul has been protected by trees. Source: Getty

Named Valerina, the city is thought to have been home to a whopping 30,000 to 50,000 people at its peak — which extended from 750 to 850 AD. Thought to contain 6,500 structures, it was found near the port city of Campeche in the Gulf of Mexico.

“I looked at the images more closely and quickly appreciated that one of the quadrangular enclosures was a palace, another was a pyramid plaza complex. But then as I cast my eye out further I realised there were ball courts, administrative buildings, reservoirs, a whole menu of things all cluttered together.

“I realised this was not just a set of buildings it had all of the features of a Maya political capital.”

The discovery has been published in the journal Antiquity.

Lidar technology was used to rediscover structures, sinkholes and caves beneath the trees. Source: Antiquity (Cambridge University Press)

Forest that has protected ancient ruins disappearing

Technology is rapidly advancing the capabilities of archeologists to locate forgotten ruins in hard-to-reach locations. And Auld-Thomas, a student at Tulane University in the United States, is continuing to search for more lost cities.

“Deforestation is destroying archeological sites at a really brisk click and we’re in a race against time to protect them. As remote sensing technology improves we come to appreciate that it has been the forest that’s protected these ruins for so long by making them hard to access,” Auld-Thomas said.

“There’s a sense of urgency about mapping these areas at scale before the forest is destroyed and more archeological heritage is lost forever. On the one hand, technologies are increasing that quickly allow us to map larger areas. But on the other hand, the area that we can map and hope to map is shrinking as it’s nibbled away at the edges.”

Trees across Mexico are being rapidly felled. Source: Getty

The 'lure of the unknown' is vanishing as the world is mapped

While mapping ancient sites is key to their protection, each discovery also takes humankind closer to an age where every inch of the planet has been explored. Childhood dreams of exploring jungles and stumbling upon an ancient world will be no more.

“There’s a big high of being able to discover these things, there’s a peak of excitement building in my discipline. But eventually, we’re going to run out of things to discover, and that’s coming quite soon,” Auld-Thomas admitted.

He finds the situation both “exciting” and “a little sad” because it’s the “lure of the unknown” that drives research, public interest, and in turn new people into the field.

“Once we’ve lost the lure of the unknown I wonder if there will be a little bit of an emotional funk that settles over archeology.”

The Forma Urbis Romae: The Story of Lost Severan Monumental Marble Map of Rome

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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A City Carved in Stone: Decoding Ancient Cartography Through Rome’s Severan Marble Map and: a Testament to Rome’s Glory"

The Forma Urbis Romae, commonly known as the Severan Marble Plan, stands as one of the most remarkable archaeological artifacts from ancient Rome. Commissioned between 203 and 211 CE under the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, this monumental marble map not only documents the urban layout of the city with immense detail but also captures the grandeur of Rome at its peak. Despite its fragmented survival, the Forma Urbis Romae remains a focal point for scholars and historians, offering a glimpse into the empire’s architectural prowess, urban planning, and historical record-keeping. Through this detailed analysis, we will explore what the Forma Urbis Romae reveals about ancient Rome, the mysteries of its purpose, its journey through history, and its significance today.

The Structure and Design of the Forma Urbis Romae

Originally measuring an astounding 18 meters wide by 13 meters high, the Forma Urbis Romae was carved into 150 marble slabs and mounted on an interior wall of the Temple of Peace, also known as the Templum Pacis. The map was crafted from Proconnesian marble and covered a significant area on the temple’s wall, capturing a detailed ground plan of the imperial city at an approximate scale of 1:240. The creators of the map oriented it with the south at the top, an orientation differing from the north-oriented convention typical in modern maps.

The map was extraordinarily detailed, reflecting the ground plans of Rome’s public and private spaces, including temples, baths, and housing blocks (insulae), along with streets and other communal structures. Even interior details, like colonnades, staircases, and doorways, were incised, with certain features highlighted through symbolic signs or dotted lines. The Forma Urbis Romae revealed the precise architectural layout of each building, and despite some inaccuracies in the carving, the map’s details were an exceptional testament to Roman urban sophistication.

What Does the Forma Urbis Romae Tell Us About Ancient Rome?

The Forma Urbis Romae primarily provides insight into Rome’s architecture and urban organization during the Severan period. By showcasing individual buildings and their internal structures, the map hints at the Romans’ meticulous attention to spatial design and their emphasis on monumental architecture. Notably, prominent public buildings like the Colosseum and the Circus Maximus are clearly depicted, underscoring the role of such spaces in Roman culture.

Moreover, the map highlights the Severan dynasty’s architectural legacy. Archaeologist Susann Lusnia suggests that the Forma Urbis served as a symbolic record of Severus’ building program, which included both restoration projects and new constructions aimed at solidifying his dynasty’s standing. The map’s scale and intricacy might suggest it was intended more as a decorative display than as a functional map. However, its basis in actual land surveys reflects the Romans’ advanced mapping techniques and desire for spatial accuracy in monumental depictions of their empire’s capital.

Purpose and Function of the Forma Urbis Romae

Scholars remain divided on the primary function of the Forma Urbis Romae. Some propose that it served as an official cadastral or locator map within the Temple of Peace, which might have functioned as an archive for the city’s records. However, David Reynolds, a scholar in Roman cartography, argues that the map was likely a decorative showpiece rather than a practical tool. Given its immense size, the map would have been challenging to consult in detail from the floor, especially as many sections were left unlabeled, further questioning its practicality.

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Reynolds suggests that there may have been two versions of the Forma Urbis: one functional, preserved in papyrus form with landownership annotations and other precise details, and the marble version intended for public display. This decorative version would visually demonstrate Rome’s urban landscape while drawing attention to Severus’ accomplishments. By placing it in the Temple of Peace, Severus could project his influence over the city’s physical and symbolic landscape.

The Journey of the Forma Urbis Through the Centuries

Following its creation, the Forma Urbis Romae gradually succumbed to the ravages of time. By the early 5th century, the map suffered significant damage when a passageway was cut through the wall it adorned. The marble slabs were eventually abandoned, with many removed or repurposed for lime production during the late medieval period.

Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Map of ancient Rome and Forma Urbis, from Le antichità Romane, 1835-1839.

Rediscovery of the Forma Urbis fragments began in 1562 when antiquarian sculptor Giovanni Antonio Dosio excavated pieces near the Church of SS. Cosma e Damiano. Over the centuries, further fragments were unearthed, with key pieces identified and matched to notable structures like the Forum of Augustus and the Baths of Agrippa. Despite these efforts, only about 10-15% of the original marble map survives, though this has been sufficient to spark ongoing scholarly fascination and reconstruction projects.

The Forma Urbis Today: A Testament to Roman Legacy

In 2024, the fragments of the Forma Urbis Romae finally received a dedicated exhibition space at the newly opened Museo della Forma Urbis near the Colosseum. This museum, part of the larger Archaeological Park of the Celio, allows visitors to walk over the map fragments displayed under glass flooring, experiencing a physical connection to ancient Rome’s monumental design. The museum also features an 18th-century copy of a historical map, the Nolli Map, superimposed on the ancient fragments, helping visitors contextualize the ancient city layout.

The wall of the Temple of Peace where the Severan marble plan once hung (photo: Wikimedia Commons)

Was the Forma Urbis Romae the Oldest Roman Map?

While the Forma Urbis Romae is among the oldest surviving large-scale maps of Rome, it may not have been the first. There is ongoing debate about whether a similar monumental map existed before Severus’ plan. Evidence from archaeological and literary sources hints at earlier representations of Rome, possibly used for administrative or ceremonial purposes, but no definitive pre-Severan maps have been discovered.

Did the Romans Have Accurate Maps?

The Forma Urbis demonstrates the Romans’ impressive ability to create precise architectural renderings, likely informed by cadastral surveys and advanced land measurement techniques. Roman maps, such as the Peutinger Map, further reveal their capacity to map vast territories and connect regions through detailed road networks. Although not always geographically accurate by modern standards, Roman maps provided essential guidance and visualizations for imperial governance, emphasizing strategic and political aspects of the empire’s expanse.

Conjectural reconstruction of the Forma Urbis Romae

Conclusion

The Forma Urbis Romae endures as a powerful symbol of Rome’s imperial ambition, urban organization, and architectural sophistication. The fragments of this marble map are not just remnants of stone but are pieces of a narrative that link modern viewers to an era when Rome was the heart of a vast empire. Now preserved for public admiration in the Museo della Forma Urbis, the map continues to fascinate and inspire, affirming the ingenuity of ancient Rome’s mapmakers and their lasting contribution to the history of urban cartography.

The Creation of Adam: A Profound Artistic Message in Michelangelo’s Hands

Michelangelo's Genius in Detail

Michelangelo Buonarroti, celebrated as one of the most skilled artists of the Renaissance, created The Creation of Adam to portray the Biblical story of God giving life to Adam, the first man. This fresco is rich with symbolism, reflecting not only on theology but on humanity's relationship with the divine. Among the most analyzed elements of this piece is the nearly-touching hands of God and Adam. In the space between their fingers, Michelangelo captured a profound message that resonates across ages.

The Subtle Gesture: Stretched and Contracted Fingers

In this work, God's hand reaches toward Adam, His finger extended to its maximum capacity. This extended gesture symbolizes divine effort, as if God is fully reaching out to offer His presence and connection. Adam, however, holds his finger in a more relaxed, slightly contracted position. The subtle difference here is profound: God seeks man actively, but man’s connection to God requires an act of free will.

Symbolism in Their Connection

This near-touching gesture has stirred many interpretations, with some suggesting it represents the perpetual closeness yet separation between humans and the divine. It is as though God is always close, always present, but the final act of connection lies in Adam’s—humanity’s—decision to reach back. The space between their fingers symbolizes the free will given to humans: while God’s presence is constant, choosing to seek Him remains an individual journey.

Art as a Reflection of Human Choice

Michelangelo, as a man of the Renaissance, was influenced by the philosophies of humanism. This intellectual movement placed a high value on individual experience, knowledge, and choice. In The Creation of Adam, Michelangelo beautifully encapsulates this humanist idea through art, showing that while divine assistance and presence are offered freely, true connection depends on mankind’s conscious choice to reach for the divine.

Legacy of The Creation of Adam

The power of Michelangelo's work lies in its universality. The image of nearly-touching hands has become an iconic symbol, representing not only divine connection but also human relationships, curiosity, and yearning. It transcends its Biblical origins, inviting viewers from all backgrounds to reflect on their own connection with the greater mysteries of life, the universe, and their personal spiritual journeys.

The Creation of Adam reminds us that art is not merely about aesthetics; it can convey complex theological, philosophical, and existential messages. Michelangelo’s genius lies in his ability to use simple gestures to provoke profound reflections on humanity's place in the world and our relationship with the divine.

Crosby Beach: The Living Legacy of "Blitz Beach"

Crosby Beach in Merseyside might appear, at first glance, to be just another windswept coastline along the northwestern shores of England. But take a closer look, and you’ll notice a haunting history embedded in its sands. Known as “Blitz Beach,” this coastline bears witness to a dramatic chapter of Liverpool's past, carrying remnants from the fierce bombings that ravaged the city during World War II. Debris from Liverpool and Bootle, casualties of the 1941 May Blitz, now rest along this beach, woven into a tapestry of memory and resilience.

Stretching over two miles, the sand here is layered with the debris of lives once lived—doorsteps, lintels, fragments of walls, chimneys, and even intricate carvings like curlicues, fleurs-de-lis, and gargoyles. These artifacts, once part of the cityscape, bear witness to a time when entire neighborhoods were reduced to rubble.

The pieces of ornate architecture, which once adorned homes and buildings, now lie scattered on the beach, telling stories of a bustling, vibrant city that faced brutal bombing raids.

The debris was brought to Crosby Beach 75 years ago, repurposed to help protect the coast from the relentless Mersey storms. Over time, these remnants of destruction were reclaimed by nature, washed, eroded, and softened by the elements. Today, the clay and sediment are returning to the river, slowly integrating into the natural landscape, yet each tide reveals traces of the past, mingling history with nature in an ever-changing display.

Walking along Blitz Beach is more than a simple seaside stroll; it’s a pilgrimage through time. The fragments underfoot serve as reminders of resilience, endurance, and the city's resolve to rebuild and thrive.

The Discovery of the Polyxena Sarcophagus: A Window into Ancient Funerary Practices and Mythology

In 1994, archaeologists made an extraordinary find in the Granicus River valley near Biga, in Turkey’s Çanakkale Province, that illuminated aspects of both ancient funerary practices and Greek mythology. Unearthed as part of a rescue excavation following reports of illegal digs, this site revealed two remarkable marble sarcophagi within a tumulus, or burial mound. This discovery, known today as the Polyxena Sarcophagus, continues to offer historians a rich view into the interaction of art, myth, and society in ancient Anatolia.

The Scene of Polyxena’s Sacrifice

The centerpiece of the find was a sarcophagus dating back to around 500–490 BC, adorned with intricate carvings that depict the mythological sacrifice of Polyxena, the Trojan princess. According to Greek legend, Polyxena was the youngest daughter of King Priam and Queen Hecuba of Troy. After the fall of Troy, the Greeks, led by Neoptolemus (son of Achilles), demanded that she be sacrificed at Achilles’ tomb as a tribute to the fallen hero. The Greeks believed this would appease his spirit, allowing their safe journey home.

The Polyxena Sarcophagus uniquely portrays this moment with an emotional and artistic intensity rarely seen in contemporary works. In the scene, Polyxena is shown in a moment of vulnerability, surrounded by Greek warriors and priests, with Neoptolemus poised to carry out the ritual. The figures are rendered with precise attention to detail, from the expressions of the mourners to the elegance of Polyxena’s garments. This depiction captures the raw emotional weight of the scene while illustrating a tragic aspect of Trojan culture and the influence of Greek myth on Anatolian funerary art.

The Second Sarcophagus: A Mystery Burial

Adjacent to Polyxena’s sarcophagus was another, simpler marble sarcophagus containing the remains of a 10-year-old girl. Dated around 40 to 50 years later, this tomb raises many questions for archaeologists. The identity of the girl remains unknown, yet the style and location of her burial suggest that she may have been part of an elite family, possibly of Anatolian origin with Greek cultural influences.

The proximity of this burial to Polyxena’s sarcophagus hints at a continued reverence for the site and perhaps even for the mythological story it portrays. Some scholars suggest that the girl’s burial near Polyxena’s tomb may have been intended to honor the deceased or align her memory with Polyxena’s legendary sacrifice, though the exact reason remains speculative. The combination of these burials showcases the blending of local customs with Greek mythological themes, emphasizing the cultural exchange between Anatolia and the Greek world.

Significance of the Polyxena Sarcophagus in Archaeology and Art

The Polyxena Sarcophagus has become a crucial artifact in understanding the interaction between Greek and Anatolian cultures during the Archaic period. In Greek culture, sarcophagi decorated with mythological scenes were common, but finding such elaborate artwork in Anatolia suggests that Greek myths and artistic techniques were well-known and perhaps even revered in this region.

Moreover, the scene on Polyxena’s sarcophagus offers insights into how myths served both religious and societal functions. The sacrifice of Polyxena symbolized themes of loyalty, honor, and tragedy, all of which resonated with audiences across cultural boundaries. By depicting Polyxena’s story, the sarcophagus also became a vessel of cultural identity, reflecting values important to the local elite.

A Glimpse into Archaic Funerary Customs

The use of tumuli and intricately decorated sarcophagi sheds light on the funerary customs of the time. Burials within tumuli were typically reserved for the elite, marking the site as a prestigious resting place. This type of burial was an honor, indicating high status or lineage and hinting at the potential influence of Greek funerary practices on Anatolian rituals. The inclusion of mythological scenes may have served not only to honor the deceased but to reinforce social status and the family’s alignment with revered cultural narratives.

The Polyxena Sarcophagus remains a remarkable artifact that bridges the worlds of myth, art, and archaeology. Its discovery and preservation have enriched our understanding of the cultural connections between ancient Greece and Anatolia, offering a tangible link to the beliefs, artistic expressions, and societal values of the time. As archaeologists continue to study this site, the Polyxena Sarcophagus will undoubtedly continue to inspire new interpretations and insights, providing a lasting legacy of a lost world where myth and reality intersected in the most tangible ways.

Archaeologists uncover the 'back door of hell' in tunnels under an ancient church

'Entrance to the underworld' is discovered in Mexico: Archaeologists uncover the 'back door of hell' in tunnels under an ancient church

Tunnels that the ancient Zapotec civilisation believed to be the 'entrance to the underworld' have been found beneath a centuries-old church.

Mitla, meaning place of the dead, was a city in southern Mexico known for its association with Pitao Bezelao, the Zapotec god of death.

But the Spanish arrived in the 16th Century and razed the city, building a church on the ruins of its most important temple.

A priest later wrote that 'the back door of hell' lay under the city – huge caverns believed to be the entrance to the Zapotec underworld.

But they were walled up, he said, and later excavations failed to find anything matching the scale of his description – until now.

Using non-invasive techniques, archaeologists recently revealed a series of chambers and tunnels beneath the city.

Five different sets of ruins were probed: the church group, the arroyo group, the adobe group, the south group, and the group of the columns.

Marco Vigato, founder of the ARX Project, which is leading the search, said: 'Some of the tunnels and chambers extend to a considerable depth, in excess of 15 metres.

Ancient tunnels believed to be the 'entrance to the underworld' have been found penetrating deep into the earth beneath a centuries-old church

Using non-invasive techniques, archaeologists recently revealed a series of chambers and tunnels beneath the city

Archaeologists have uncovered what they're calling the 'back door of hell' in tunnels under an ancient church (stock image) 

'In the case of the south group, they're up to 30 metres deep – this is as far as the instruments can penetrate.

'One chamber under the Church of San Pablo Apostol measures approximately 15 metres long by 10 metres wide.

'It is possible that the tunnels, particularly those under the church group, extend further to the north, east and south.

'Possibly they connect to other geophysical anomalies identified under the other groups.'

If these are the tunnels of legend, the Zapotec kings may lie within.

Francisco de Burgoa, the aforementioned priest, paints a picture of the royal burial chamber in his 1674 text, Geografica Descripción.

He says the kings are interred 'richly dressed in their best attire,' with 'feathers, jewels, golden necklaces, and precious stones'.

Their bodies, meanwhile, hold 'a shield in the left hand and a javelin in the right, just as they used them in war'.

Five different sets of ruins were probed: the church group, the arroyo group, the adobe group, the south group, and the group of the columns

The underground tunnels were revealed using a combination of ground penetrating radar, electric resistivity tomography, and seismic noise tomography

Instead of electricity, seismic noise tomography measures the speed at which seismic waves move through the ground

Two further caverns he describes contain a chapel, and a burial chamber for the Zapotec high priests respectively.

The final chamber, he says, leads to 'a dark and gruesome room' where 'they threw the bodies of the victims of the great lords and chieftains who had fallen in battle.'

Mr Vigato said: 'The Zapotecs believed the caves and the subterranean labyrinth under Mitla to be an entrance to the underworld, or Lyobaa.

'For this reason, Mitla was the centre of the cult of Pitao Bezelao, the Zapotec god of death and the underworld, and was for centuries the cemetery of the Zapotec kings and high priests.'

It's no coincidence that there was a void beneath the church altar.

Mr Vigato said: 'The church was built deliberately on top of the most important Zapotec temple at Mitla.

'It was a way of converting a pre-existing religious site and symbolising the triumph of the new faith.

'A significant portion of the ruins were incorporated into the foundations of the church, which was built with stones stripped from the ancient buildings.'

The underground tunnels were revealed using a combination of ground penetrating radar, electric resistivity tomography, and seismic noise tomography.

This photo shows the interior of the Church of San Pablo Apostol at Mitla

The researchers now hope to determine the nature of the cavities identified under the site and whether they contain any artifacts of archaeological significance

The tunnels were discovered under a church in the ancient city of Mitla

The first method uses radar waves to model the subsurface, while the second detects buried structures by measuring the flow of electricity through the earth.

Instead of electricity, the final method measures the speed at which seismic waves move through the ground.

Just how old the tunnels are is yet to be established.

Mr Vigato said: 'Natural caves in the area of Mitla have been occupied and partially modified by humans for thousands of years.

'The earliest evidence of crop domestication in the area of Mitla dates back almost 10,000 years.

'There is no indication at the moment as to the possible age of the tunnels under the church or the other groups of structures at Mitla.

'They may have been created by the Zapotecs, or they could be much older.'

He added: 'The findings from the geophysical scans will have to be confirmed with archaeological methods.

'This could determine the nature of the cavities identified under the site and whether they contain any artifacts of archaeological significance.'

You can learn more about the discoveries at Mitla at www.arxproject.org.

Ancient Celtic Tomb Reveals Unprecedented Archaeological Treasure After 2,600 Years

A remarkable 2,600-year-old Celtic burial chamber has just been unearthed in Riedlingen, Germany, capturing global attention with its extraordinary state of preservation. Experts are calling it a discovery of “unique and outstanding scientific importance.” Encased within a 20-foot-high burial mound spanning over 210 feet in diameter, the wooden chamber—complete with its original walls, floor, and ceiling—offers a rare glimpse into ancient Celtic life.

The State Office for Monument Preservation in Stuttgart recently announced the find, marking it as the first fully preserved Celtic burial chamber uncovered in Germany since 1890. The oak timber structure, sheltered for centuries beneath layers of earth, provides invaluable insight into ancient burial customs and construction techniques, which experts are eagerly examining.

Archaeologist Dirk Krausse, from the State Office for Cultural Heritage Baden-Württemberg, expressed the significance of the discovery: “The Riedlingen grave is a stroke of luck for archaeology... Its scientific value transcends the borders of Baden-Württemberg and southern Germany.”

Within the burial chamber, researchers found a wooden tool believed to date back to 585 BC, possibly used during the construction of the tomb itself. This ancient artifact could unlock further secrets about the people who built it, their craftsmanship, and their daily lives.

Andrea Lindlohr, a local official, remarked on the discovery’s importance, saying, “The archaeological heritage of Baden-Württemberg is impressive, offering invaluable insights into ancient societies and long-lost eras.” The find promises to advance our understanding of Celtic civilization, while the application of modern technology on this ancient site enables researchers to reconstruct a rich picture of Europe’s ancient history.

Ancient Mystery of the World’s Oldest Map on a 3,000-Year-Old Babylonian Tablet Finally Uncovered

A recent video by the British Museum highlights the discovery and decoding of what is considered the world’s oldest map. This ancient Babylonian clay tablet, known as the Imago Mundi, reveals a familiar narrative through its inscriptions and map details.

The Imago Mundi, created around the 7th century BC, is a schematic map in the Akkadian language, depicting the world as the Babylonians understood it. It was unearthed in Abu Habba (ancient Sippar) in southern Iraq and entered the British Museum’s collection in 1882. For centuries, the tablet remained largely a mystery until curators uncovered a missing piece, which allowed them to transcribe its cuneiform.

The tablet, dated to the 6th century BC, presents an aerial view of Mesopotamia—the land "between the rivers" in modern-day Iraq—and extends to what the Babylonians believed lay beyond. The inscriptions on the back and above the map describe the creation of the Earth and detail the lands and peoples they thought existed beyond their borders.

One prominent feature is a double ring encircling Mesopotamia, referred to by the scribe as the "Bitter River," marking the edge of the known world. Within this circle lie small shapes representing cities and tribes, including Babylon and a symbol for the Euphrates River. This design suggests the Babylonians viewed Mesopotamia as the world’s center.

British Museum curator and cuneiform expert Dr. Irving Finkel explains, “In this circular diagram, you have captured the entirety of the known world—where people lived, thrived, and perished.” He adds, however, that the map extends beyond the physical world into realms of imagination.

Besides mapping physical locations, the scribe included references to familiar myths, including a Babylonian version of the Noah’s Ark story. The tablet describes how the Babylonian hero Utnapishtim, their version of Noah, built an ark upon divine command. According to the story, this ark came to rest on a mountain beyond the Bitter River—aligning with the biblical tale of Noah.

The tablet also affirms Babylonian beliefs in creation deity Marduk and mythical creatures like the scorpion-man and the lion-headed bird Anzu. Dr. Finkel concludes that these shared narratives underscore a fascinating overlap between ancient stories across cultures.

Ancient House with Erotic Frescoes Discovered at Pompeii

Ancient Pompeii home with 'untouched' frescoes of mythological scenes uncovered by archaeologists 2,000 years after being buried in volcanic rubble

A small home in the ancient Roman city of Pompeii filled with untouched frescoes of mythological scenes has been uncovered by archaeologists after being buried under volcanic rubble for 2,000 years.   

The richly decorated dwelling, called the House of Phaedra after the mythological queen of Athens who features in one of its wall paintings, was discovered on Thursday, according to the site.  

It sheds light on changing architectural styles in the first century AD, and unlike many of the houses excavated at the site, it was not built around the traditional Roman atrium, an open space with a pool for collecting rain water, the Pompeii archaeological park said in a statement.

One of the frescoes found at the small house in Pompeii. Courtesy of the Archaeological Park of Pompeii

Despite its small size, the house 'strikes us for the high level of its wall decorations,' the statement said, noting they were of similar quality to much larger and more opulent homes near the new discovery, which lies in the centre of the site. 

Besides the fresco of Phaedra and Hippolytus, who spurned her love, other mythological scenes adorning the vividly coloured walls of the house include a sexual encounter between a satyr and a nymph, and gods who the site said may have been Venus and Adonis.

A detail of a richly decorated but uncommonly small house with finely preserved frescoes of mythological scenes is pictured in the archaeological site in Pompeii, Italy

The dwelling, called the House of Phaedra after the mythological queen of Athens who features in one of its wall paintings, was discovered on Thursday

Despite its small size, the house 'strikes us for the high level of its wall decorations,' the Pompeii archaeological park said in a  statement 

One depicts a sexual encounter between a satyr and a nymph, and gods who the site said may have been Venus and Adonis

The house sheds light on changing architectural styles in the first century AD

The building also boasts numerous smaller, but detailed and beautifully preserved patterns and scenes from nature.   

The once-thriving city of Pompeii and the surrounding countryside in southern Italy was submerged by volcanic ash when Mount Vesuvius exploded in A.D. 79.

The eruption killed thousands of Romans who had no idea they were living in the shadow of one of Europe's biggest volcanoes. 

It buried the city in a thick layer of ash, preserving many of its residents and buildings.

Images of sexual positions have been found in a private home near Pompeii as well as in the city’s brothel.

Apart from their relaxed attitude to sex, Pompeiians painted phallic symbols on their homes in the belief they brought wealth, fertility and good luck.

The latest  find comes six months after archeologists uncovered remarkably preserved fresco paintings on a wall at a former private residence along Via di Nola, one of Pompeii's longest streets, in April.

One of the stunning artworks depicted Helen of Troy, a beautiful woman in Greek mythology, meeting Paris, prince of Troy, for the first time. 

According to legend, the resulting elopement between the two sparked the Trojan War of the 12th century BC. 

It's one of many buried treasures found at the Italian former city, which was famously destroyed by the lethal eruption of Mount Vesuvius. 

The frescos were been discovered in the 'black room', an 'imposing' banquet hall with elegant black walls at a former private residence along Via di Nola.

Painted onto a black background, the scene shows Helen of Troy, a beautiful woman in Greek mythology (left with a nurse or maid), meeting Paris, prince of Troy (right with his dog). The little Greek writing says: Alexander Helen. Alexander is another name for Paris

A second fresco in the black room, meanwhile, depicts the naked Greek god Apollo trying to seduce the priestess Cassandra

Here, Leda, mother of Helen of Troy is about to conceive with Greek god Zeus disguised as a randy swan

A fourth fresco, uncovered from the ancient volcanic material in April, shows a female figure appearing to hold a dish

It is called the black room because it was painted black, likely to mask soot from oil lamps that would have burnt.

Conversely, the room's mosaic floor is comprised of more than a million tiny and intricately arranged white tiles.

'Here people gathered to feast after sunset, the flickering light of the oil lamps made the images seem to move, especially after a few glasses of good Campania wine,' said Gabriel Zuchtriegel, director of the Archaeological Park of Pompeii, at the time of the discovery.

A second fresco was unearthed in the room, which depicted the naked Greek god Apollo trying to seduce the priestess Cassandra.

Dr Andrew Sillett, a classics lecturer at the University of Oxford, has described the frescos as 'pretty cool' because they were likely done close to the eruption.

'Most paintings we have are somewhat worn as a result of having been painted years before,' he told MailOnline.

'It looks like these were buried very shortly after having been painted.'

A third fresco in the black room, meanwhile, showed Leda, mother of Helen of Troy.

And a fourth fresco, which is barely uncovered from the ancient volcanic material, showed a female figure appearing to hold a dish.