Enigmatic Structures Discovered Near the Great Pyramid of Giza

Scientists have uncovered a hidden corridor within Egypt's Great Pyramid of Giza, revealing more secrets beneath its sands. The Great Pyramid, one of the world's most famous landmarks, still harbors many mysteries.

Recently, archaeologists discovered a peculiar L-shaped structure buried beside the pyramid, believed to date back around 4,500 years. Remarkably, beneath this structure lies another "anomaly," suggesting that the L-shaped feature might serve as a gateway to deeper chambers.

An international team from Japan and Egypt identified these structures using advanced ground-penetrating technology while examining Giza's Western Cemetery. This cemetery was reserved for the royal family of King Khufu, the pyramid's builder, and high-ranking officials, interred in flat-roofed tombs known as "mastabas." However, an unexpectedly empty area in the cemetery prompted the researchers to investigate further using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and ground-penetrating radar (GPR).

This red rectangle shows the approximate location of the initial survey area(Higashi Nippon International University)

ERT measures resistance by sending electrical currents into the ground, while GPR maps underground structures using radar reflections. Their analysis from 2021 to 2023 uncovered the first anomaly approximately two meters (6.5 feet) below the surface. This L-shaped structure, at least 10 meters (33 feet) long, appeared to be filled with sand, indicating it was likely backfilled after its construction.

The deeper anomaly, a "highly resistive" feature, might consist of sand and gravel or an air void. Researchers suggested it could be limestone walls or shafts leading to a tomb. However, they acknowledged that more detailed surveys are needed to confirm this.

Excavations to identify the L-shaped structure are ongoing, according to Motoyuki Sato from Japan's Tohoku University, who led the study. He asserts the structure is man-made due to its distinct shape.

GPR scans showing the mysterious anomaly(Higashi Nippon International University)

Peter Der Manuelian, a Harvard University Egyptology professor not involved in the study, noted the long-overlooked potential of this area due to the absence of superstructures. While L-shaped structures are known in Giza, they usually appear above ground. Der Manuelian emphasized the importance of further exploration to understand the anomaly's true nature.

How Chickens Are Related to Dinosaurs

The Dinosaur Connection: How Chickens Are Related to Dinosaurs

When we think of dinosaurs, images of massive creatures like Tyrannosaurus rex and Velociraptor often come to mind. However, one of the most fascinating revelations in paleontology is that these awe-inspiring reptiles have living descendants that walk among us today: birds. Among these avian descendants, the humble chicken is a direct link to the age of dinosaurs. Here, we delve into the evidence and science that connects chickens to their prehistoric ancestors.

Shared Physical Characteristics

Birds and theropod dinosaurs share a remarkable number of physical traits. Both groups exhibit hollow bones, which reduce weight and are advantageous for flight in birds and potentially for agility in theropods. Additionally, the limb structure of birds, particularly their three-toed feet, mirrors that of many theropod dinosaurs. These shared characteristics are more than coincidental; they point to a common ancestry.

The Feather Connection

One of the most striking links between birds and theropod dinosaurs is the presence of feathers. For a long time, feathers were thought to be exclusive to birds. However, fossil evidence has revealed that feathers were widespread among theropods. Species such as Velociraptor and the more primitive theropod Sinosauropteryx were covered in feathers, suggesting that these structures originally evolved for purposes other than flight, such as insulation or display.

Sinosauropteryx

Type of dinosaur: small theropod

Length: 1.1m

Diet: carnivorous

Food: small animals, including mammals and lizards

How it moved: on 2 legs

When it lived: Early Cretaceous, 125-122 million years ago

Found in: China

Cladistics and Evolutionary Relationships

Cladistics, a method of classifying organisms based on common ancestry, places birds firmly within the theropod group. Within this framework, birds are part of a subgroup called Coelurosauria, which includes some of the most well-known dinosaurs like T. rex. This classification is based on a multitude of shared derived characteristics that indicate evolutionary relationships. Essentially, birds are considered avian dinosaurs, a specialized branch of the theropod family tree.

Fossil Evidence: The Transitional Forms

Fossils provide crucial evidence for the evolutionary transition from non-avian dinosaurs to birds. One of the most famous transitional fossils is Archaeopteryx, which lived about 150 million years ago. Archaeopteryx possesses a blend of avian and dinosaurian features, such as feathers and a wishbone, combined with teeth, a long bony tail, and clawed fingers. These traits make Archaeopteryx a key piece of evidence in understanding the evolution of flight and the emergence of birds from theropod ancestors.

The skeletons of the nonavian maniraptoran Velociraptor, the Jurassic bird Archaeopteryx, the Early Cretaceous short-tailed bird Sapeornis and enantiornithine Longipteryx, the Late Cretaceous Ichthyornis, and the living Gallus (chicken). In recent years, a wealth of bird-like nonavian maniraptorans and primitive (“dinosaur”-like) birds have been unearthed from Mesozoic rocks worldwide—these discoveries have consolidated the notion that birds evolved from maniraptoran theropod dinosaurs. Drawings not to scale

Genetic Studies

Modern genetic research further reinforces the connection between birds and dinosaurs. Comparative studies of the genomes of birds and reptiles reveal many similarities, particularly with theropod dinosaurs. These genetic similarities include not only the structure of DNA but also the expression of certain genes that govern development and morphology.

The connection between chickens and dinosaurs is a compelling example of how modern science can unveil the deep evolutionary history of even the most commonplace animals. Chickens, like all birds, are the living descendants of theropod dinosaurs, carrying forward a legacy that stretches back millions of years. This lineage is evidenced by shared physical traits, the presence of feathers in both groups, cladistic classification, transitional fossils, and genetic similarities. As such, the next time you see a chicken, remember that you are looking at a modern-day dinosaur, a remarkable testament to the enduring legacy of these ancient creatures.

Fossilized Claws: How Much They Cost and How to Preserve Them

Fossilized claws are fascinating remnants of prehistoric life, offering a tangible connection to the distant past. These ancient relics, often from dinosaurs or other large reptiles, have been preserved over millions of years through natural processes. This guide provides detailed information on the cost, acquisition, and preservation of fossilized claws.

Understanding Fossilized Claws

Fossilized claws are typically the remains of the claws of extinct animals that have undergone mineralization, turning them into stone over time. They are valuable for both scientific research and as collectible items for enthusiasts.

Cost of Fossilized Claws

The cost of fossilized claws varies significantly based on several factors:

• Species: Claws from well-known or particularly rare species, such as certain dinosaurs, command higher prices. For example, a claw from a Tyrannosaurus rex would be more valuable than one from a less famous species.

• Condition: The better the preservation and completeness of the claw, the higher its value. Intact and well-defined claws are more sought after.

• Size: Larger claws generally fetch higher prices due to their rarity and display appeal.

• Authenticity: Verified and certified fossils are more expensive. Documentation proving the fossil's provenance and authenticity increases its market value.

The darker, smaller claw is from Tyrannosaurus rex. The bigger one, an unnamed megaraptorid. Makes the claws of T.rex look like toothpicks.

Prices can range from a few hundred dollars for small, common claws to tens of thousands of dollars for rare and well-preserved specimens. It's essential to research and compare prices from different sources to ensure a fair deal.

1.75" Raptor Claw

APPROXIMATE COST - $250

6.5" Spinosaurus Claw

APPROXIMATE COST - $17.000

Finding Fossilized Claws

There are several avenues to explore when looking to acquire fossilized claws:

1. Fossil Shops:

   • Specialized fossil shops sell a variety of fossils, often with authenticity certificates. These shops can be found in major cities or areas known for fossil finds.

2. Online Marketplaces:

   • Websites like eBay, Etsy, and specialized fossil marketplaces offer a wide range of fossilized claws. Be sure to check the seller's reputation and ask for authenticity certificates.

3. Fossil Shows and Auctions:

   • Events like fossil shows and auctions are great places to find high-quality fossils. Collectors and sellers gather to buy, sell, and trade fossils, often with experts on hand to verify authenticity.

4. Museums and Universities:

   • Some institutions sell surplus fossils or offer them for educational purposes. These fossils are typically well-documented, adding to their value.

5. Fossil Hunting Trips:

   • Organized trips to fossil-rich areas allow participants to search for fossils themselves. These trips can be a fun and educational way to find fossils, though the likelihood of finding a high-quality claw varies.

Preserving Fossilized Claws

Proper preservation is crucial to maintaining the condition and value of fossilized claws. Here are the steps to ensure their longevity:

1. Cleaning:

   • Use a soft brush to gently remove loose dirt and debris. Avoid using water and harsh chemicals, as they can damage the fossil. For stubborn dirt, consult a professional conservator.

2. Stabilization:

   • Apply a consolidant like Paraloid B-72 to stabilize the fossil. This acrylic resin can be dissolved in acetone and brushed onto the fossil, strengthening it and preventing further deterioration.

3. Storage:

   • Keep the fossil in a stable, dry environment away from direct sunlight, which can cause fading and damage. Store it in a padded box or display case to prevent physical damage.

4. Handling:

   • Handle fossils with clean, dry hands or wear gloves to avoid transferring oils or moisture, which can harm the fossil. Handle as little as possible to prevent wear and tear.

5. Display:

   • Use supports or stands to keep the fossil secure if displayed. Ensure the display setup prevents the fossil from falling or getting knocked over. Rotate displayed fossils periodically to reduce exposure to light and environmental factors.

6. Professional Care:

   • For valuable or delicate fossils, consider professional conservation services. Experts can provide advanced care and repair any damage using appropriate materials and techniques.

Fossilized claws are not only intriguing artifacts from our planet's history but also valuable collectibles. Understanding their cost, acquisition methods, and preservation techniques ensures that these ancient treasures can be enjoyed and studied for years to come. Whether you're a seasoned collector or a curious novice, handling fossilized claws with care and respect will help preserve their legacy for future generations.

Sexuality in Mayan Society

Exploring the Intricate Tapestry of Mayan Sexual Culture

The study of sexuality within the Mayan civilization offers a window into their complex societal structures and cultural beliefs. Unlike more tangible historical topics, the sexuality of ancient civilizations like the Maya is nuanced and deeply intertwined with their religious and sociopolitical life. This article draws upon a variety of sources, particularly "Sexuality in Maya and Nahuatl Sources" by Pete Sigal, to explore how sexuality was not just a personal aspect but a significant cultural and ritualistic element within Mayan society.

Historical Context and Sources

Mayan sexual culture is documented through diverse genres, including Yucatec texts, Nahuatl codices, and Spanish colonial reports. These sources present challenges due to their historical context and the biases of their recorders. The interpretation of these texts requires a methodical approach, combining philological analysis with cultural history to decode the symbolic and ritualistic languages of sexuality embedded within them.

Sexual Behaviors and Social Structure

Mayan documents reveal a society where sexual behavior was closely linked to religious and social orders. Texts like the Yucatec Books of Chilam Balam discuss adultery and its repercussions on societal leadership and morality. These narratives are not direct accounts but rather symbolic stories that reflect broader social beliefs and laws regarding sexuality and its control within the community.

Gender Dynamics and Sexual Identity

In Mayan civilization, gender roles were distinctly defined yet deeply interconnected. The sexual identities and behaviors prescribed in the texts were reflective of broader gender dynamics within society. For instance, the portrayal of women in ritual texts often symbolizes fertility and earthly connections, which were vital to Mayan cosmology and religion.

Sexuality and Power

Sexuality in Mayan texts is frequently used as a narrative tool to discuss power dynamics. For example, accusations in petitions against priests for sexual misconduct often served political purposes, challenging or reinforcing the power structures within colonial Mayan society. These texts show how sexuality was not only a personal or biological aspect but a significant component of political and religious negotiations.

Rituals and Symbolism

The ritualistic aspect of Mayan sexuality is perhaps the most vivid portrayal of its cultural significance. Ritual texts describe ceremonies that involve sexual acts or symbols, which are deeply tied to notions of fertility, creation, and the gods. These rituals underscore the connection between human sexual behavior and cosmic or divine processes, reflecting a worldview where sexuality is integral to the spiritual and physical health of the community.

Comparative Insights

Comparing Mayan sexual norms and practices with those of other Mesoamerican cultures highlights both unique and shared elements. Cross-cultural studies reveal how different societies used sexual symbolism and rituals in varying ways to construct their social and spiritual universes.

Contemporary Interpretations and Challenges

Modern interpretations of ancient sexual practices must navigate the complexities of historical bias, translation errors, and cultural misrepresentations. Contemporary scholars must approach these ancient texts with a critical eye, recognizing both the cultural significance and the limitations of the sources available.

The study of Mayan sexuality offers profound insights into their world view, showing how deeply sexuality was woven into the fabric of their society. It challenges modern readers to consider how integral sexual norms and behaviors are to the understanding of any culture, and encourages a reflective look at how these elements shape societal structures and beliefs.

References

• Sigal, Pete. "Sexuality in Maya and Nahuatl Sources." Analysis of various historical texts and their implications on understanding Mayan sexual culture.

• Roys, Ralph L., Ed. "The Ritual of the Bacabs." Provides detailed descriptions of Mayan ritual texts.

• Restall, Matthew. "The Maya World." Offers contextual information on Mayan society and culture.

Geometric Miracle Unearthed in Egyptian Temple

In the ancient city of Taposiris Magna, under the shadow of a temple, a monumental discovery has been made by archaeologists led by Kathleen Martinez of the University of Santo Domingo. A vast tunnel, carved 13 meters below the surface through 1,305 meters of sandstone, has been unearthed, demonstrating precision akin to the famed 6th-century BC Tunnel of Eupalinos on the island of Samos, known for its engineering marvel.

This tunnel, 2 meters in height, mirrors the architectural genius of ancient civilizations, and has intrigued experts with its sophisticated design and unknown purpose, some of it currently submerged underwater. The discovery by Martinez, who has been investigating the site since 2004 in hopes of locating Cleopatra VII’s lost tomb, offers a promising new lead.

Founded around 280 BCE by Ptolemy II, Taposiris Magna holds significant historical relevance due to its connections to notable figures like Alexander the Great and Cleopatra. The temple, dedicated to Osiris and his queen, Isis—a goddess closely linked to Cleopatra—has also yielded figurines and coins that depict these historical icons.

Further explorations are planned, including potential underwater investigations near the Mediterranean coast, following historical evidence of earthquakes between 320 and 1303 CE that affected the temple’s structure. Already, this exploration has brought to light valuable artifacts like a limestone block and ancient pottery.

The significance of this discovery could be monumental, with former Minister for Antiquities, Zahi Hawass, noting that finding the tombs of Cleopatra and Mark Antony would be among the century's most significant archaeological achievements. Whether or not these tombs are found, the discoveries at Taposiris Magna reshape our understanding of ancient Egyptian engineering and royal history.

Waterfall discovery changes what we believed about evolution

Groundbreaking Discovery at Kalambo Falls Rewrites Understanding of Early Human Ingenuity

A wooden structure above a waterfall has changed our thinking of the Stone Age (Picture: Professor Larry Barham/UOL/SWNS)

A remarkable find at Zambia’s Kalambo Falls has revolutionized our understanding of the Early Stone Age, pushing the boundaries of what we believed about our ancestors' capabilities. Researchers from the University of Liverpool and Aberystwyth University unearthed the world's oldest known man-made wooden structures, dating back at least 476,000 years—predating Homo sapiens.

This discovery provides the earliest evidence of early humans deliberately shaping logs to construct complex structures, far surpassing the previous assumptions that early human use of wood was limited to simpler tools like spears or digging sticks. The well-preserved wooden remains, found due to the high water levels at Kalambo Falls, indicate that these early humans were more settled than previously thought, challenging the notion that Stone Age humans were strictly nomadic.

The structure could have been a platform, or possibly a dwelling (Picture: Professor Larry Barham/UOL/SWNS)

Professor Larry Barham, leader of the 'Deep Roots of Humanity' project at Liverpool University, remarked, “This discovery has profoundly changed my view of our early ancestors. It’s not just about survival; it’s about them using their intelligence and creativity to build their environment.”

The findings, featured in the journal Nature, suggest that these early humans constructed a platform or part of a dwelling, demonstrating advanced planning and craftsmanship. "They were not just survivors; they were innovators who manipulated their environment to make life more manageable," added Barham.

Aberystwyth University's Professor Geoff Duller, who helped date the find using advanced luminescence techniques, noted, "This technique allows us to push back the dates we can confirm, offering a more detailed picture of early human evolution."

The Kalambo Falls site, located on the Zambia-Tanzania border near Lake Tanganyika, is under consideration for UNESCO World Heritage status due to its significant archaeological potential, underscored by these latest findings.

This transformative discovery not only places the Kalambo Falls site in a new light but also enhances its importance as a key heritage site, promising more insights into the origins of human technology and settlement.

Lancashire Sees 50% Increase in Treasure Finds Amid National Surge in Metal Detecting

LANCASHIRE, UK - Treasure hunting in Lancashire and the surrounding Blackburn with Darwen area surged by 50% last year, mirroring a national rise in such discoveries across England and Wales. According to recent statistics released by the Ministry of Justice, the region reported nine significant finds in 2023, up from six the previous year.

This increase is part of a broader trend, as metal detecting gains popularity, with England and Wales reporting a record 1,219 treasure discoveries to coroners in 2023, marking a 12% rise from 2022. These figures represent the highest recorded since the initiation of the Treasure Act in 1997, which initially saw only 54 finds.

The Ministry attributes the growth in discoveries to a rise in metal-detecting enthusiasts, a hobby that has seen increased interest particularly post-pandemic. However, with this rise comes a caution from the Detectorist Institute and Foundation about the need for careful excavation. Mishandling can lead to reduced valuations by the Treasure Valuation Committee and potential damage to the archaeological integrity of the items.

Keith Westcott, the founder of the institute, emphasized the educational value of these finds. "Handled properly, treasure finds can offer invaluable insights into historical lifestyles, sometimes preserving organic materials like leather that are crucial for archaeological studies," he said.

The Ministry also noted that treasure finds vary regionally, likely influenced by geographic and historical factors. In 2023, the North West alone saw 45 finds, up from 33 the previous year.

Significant changes to the definition of treasure were also implemented in July of the previous year. The new criteria now consider items over 200 years old as treasure if they offer significant insights into British heritage, a change from the earlier requirement of being over 300 years old and made of precious metals or related to valuable collections.

Mysterious Stone Engraving Discovered in Thai Jungle

BURI RAM, THAILAND - A remarkable discovery was made in the Dong Yai Wildlife Sanctuary in Non Din Daeng district of Buri Ram when a family foraging for wild mushrooms stumbled upon a previously unknown stone engraving. The engraving, measuring 1.45 meters in height, depicts a woman in traditional attire with her left arm raised above her head. The image was found on Khao Krachiao mountain on a serene Sunday.

Local mushroom forager Pramul Kongkrathok and his family were exploring the dense forest when his granddaughter noticed the unusual stone figure. The Kongkrathoks, residents of nearby Ban Klong Pong, were astonished by the find. "It was like she was waiting for us," said Mr. Pramul, who immediately reported the discovery to the authorities.

The site has since drawn the attention of local officials and archaeologists, including Suthinan Promchai from the Phanom Rung Historical Park. "This could be a significant piece of our cultural history," noted Promchai, who has alerted the Fine Arts Department. Experts are expected to evaluate the engraving to ascertain its age and historical significance.

Pramul expressed hope that the site would be preserved properly. He suggested that it could potentially serve as a new spiritual and tourist destination. "This find not only highlights the rich cultural tapestry of our region but also underscores the importance of preserving our natural and historical heritage," he added.

The discovery is currently under the supervision of the Fine Arts Department, and further investigations are planned to uncover more about this intriguing artifact.

Discovery of Psychedelic Plants in Ancient Mayan Ballcourt Offers New Insights into Ritual Practices

Revolutionary Find at Yaxnohcah: Ancient Mayan Ballcourt Reveals Ritualistic Use of Psychedelic Plants

In an enlightening discovery at Yaxnohcah, an ancient Mayan city on the Yucatán Peninsula, archaeologists have unearthed evidence of ritualistic use of psychedelic and medicinal plants, dating back to the Late Preclassic period, approximately 2,000 years ago. This significant find, which was detailed in a recent study published in the journal PLOS One, underscores the integral role these plants played in Mayan religious and cultural practices.

Researchers, after conducting DNA analysis of soil samples from an elevated platform supporting a ballcourt at Yaxnohcah, identified several plants including the hallucinogenic xtabentun (Ipomoea corymbosa), lancewood (Oxandra lanceolata), chile peppers (Capsicum sp.), and jool leaves (Hampea trilobata). These plants are noted for their medicinal properties and were likely used in a bundle for rituals aimed at blessing or "christening" the ballcourt.

The discovery not only sheds light on the Mayans' sophisticated use of plant-based pharmacology but also enhances our understanding of their religious ceremonies, potentially offering new insights into ancient Mayan culture and its preservation of knowledge through natural resources.

The Movable Type Revolution: How Printing Sculpted Modern Europe

In the mid-15th century, a quiet revolution began in Mainz, Germany, that would fundamentally alter the trajectory of European society. The invention of movable type printing by Johannes Gutenberg around 1450 heralded an era of mass communication that is often likened to the advent of the internet in terms of its transformative impact. This technology facilitated unprecedented dissemination of knowledge, catalyzing profound cultural, scientific, and religious transformations across Europe.

The Early Days

The earliest evidence of movable type printing shows a solitary city, Mainz, equipped with this new technology by 1450. The significance of this innovation cannot be overstated; it allowed for the replication of texts with speed and accuracy previously unachievable. Books and pamphlets, once laboriously hand-copied and accessible only to the elite, could now be produced in hundreds of copies, paving the way for broader literacy and public discourse.

Rapid Expansion

By 1460, the technology had spread to several key urban centers, including Strasbourg and Venice, each a hub of trade and intellectual exchange. The progression from 1470 onwards was striking, with the maps displaying an exponential increase in the number of cities adopting printing. This spread was not merely a technological diffusion but also a cultural explosion. The availability of printed material helped standardize languages and disseminate the Renaissance humanist ideals, which questioned traditional doctrines and emphasized classical learning.

Cultural and Scientific Renaissance

The proliferation of printing presses played a crucial role in the Renaissance. Scholars could now collaborate widely, sharing discoveries and ideas across borders. The reproduction of crucial texts, such as the works of Aristotle and Galen, reintroduced and solidified foundational concepts in science and philosophy across Europe. This era saw a rekindling of knowledge that set the stage for the scientific revolutions of the subsequent centuries.

The Reformation and Beyond

Perhaps one of the most significant consequences of the spread of printing was its role in the Reformation. Key religious texts, most notably the Bible and Martin Luther’s 95 Theses, were printed and circulated widely, challenging the Roman Catholic Church's authority and sparking religious reform and conflict across the continent. This period demonstrated the power of print to not only spread knowledge but also galvanize social and political movements.

The Standardization of Language and the Birth of Nationalism

As the maps from the late 15th and early 16th centuries indicate, the network of cities with printing presses had become dense by 1500, particularly in central and western Europe. The standardization of texts facilitated by printing also contributed to the standardization of language, which played a pivotal role in the formation of national identities. This was crucial for the later development of nation-states in Europe.

The diffusion of movable type printing, as illustrated by the spread from one city in 1450 to a continent-spanning network by 1500, was a pivotal factor in shaping modern European identity and institutions. It democratized knowledge, spurred the Renaissance and Reformation, and laid the groundwork for modern nation-states. In examining the legacy of this revolution, it is evident that the movable type printing press was not just a technological innovation but a profound catalyst for cultural transformation and societal progress in Europe.

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To explore more about the history and impact of the movable type printing press, you can visit these resources:

• World History Encyclopedia on the printing revolution: The Printing Revolution in Renaissance Europe

• Wikipedia entry on movable type: Movable type - Wikipedia

• Encyclopaedia Britannica's comprehensive article on the printing press: Printing press | Britannica

• History's exploration of how the printing press changed the world: 7 Ways the Printing Press Changed the World | HISTORY

The Enigmatic Lemnos Stele: Bridging Aegean and Etruscan Civilizations

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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A Window into Ancient Mediterranean Languages

In the rich tapestry of Mediterranean history, few artifacts are as enigmatic and potentially illuminating as the Lemnos Stele. Discovered on the Greek island of Lemnos, this ancient stone stele offers a rare glimpse into the Iron Age linguistic and cultural connections between different Mediterranean civilizations. Known also as the Kaminia Stele, named after the area where it was found, this artifact bears inscriptions in a script that challenges both linguists and historians to decode its secrets and the history it carries.

The Discovery of the Lemnos Stele

The Lemnos Stele was uncovered in 1885 near the village of Kaminia on the island of Lemnos, Greece. This find was significant not only because of its age, dating back to the 6th century BC, but also because it features one of the few known inscriptions in the Lemnian language. The stele displays a relief of a male figure, possibly a warrior or noble, alongside inscriptions that are critical for our understanding of ancient languages.

The stele, also referred to as the Stele of Kaminia, was originally part of a church wall in Kaminia before its relocation to the National Archaeological Museum of Athens. Dated to the 6th century BC, its historical context is framed by the Athenian invasion led by Miltiades in 510 BC, which initiated the “hellenization” of Lemnos. The stele features a low-relief bust of a man and bears an inscription in an alphabet akin to the western ("Chalcidian") Greek alphabet. The inscription, arranged in the Boustrophedon style, has been transliterated and has started to be meaningfully translated following advancements in the understanding of Etruscan, facilitated by linguistic comparisons.

Linguistic Significance and similarities to the etruscan language

The inscriptions on the Lemnos Stele are primarily in the Lemnian language, which shows intriguing similarities to the Etruscan language, spoken contemporaneously in regions of what is now modern Italy.

The inscription comprises 198 characters, which are organized into 33 to 40 words; in some cases, word separation is marked by one to three dots. The text is divided into three sections on the front, with two sections written vertically (1; 6-7) and one horizontally (2-5). A decipherable segment, "sivai avis šialχvis" ('lived forty years', B.3), mirrors the Etruscan phrase "maχs śealχis-c" ('and forty-five years'), suggesting it commemorates the lifespan of an individual, possibly named Holaie Phokiaš, referred to as "holaiesi φokiašiale" ('to Holaie Phokiaš', B.1). This individual might have once held the title "maras," as indicated by "marasm avis aomai" ('and was a maras for one year', B3). Intriguingly, the text includes the term "naφoθ," akin to the Etruscan "nefts" ('nephew/uncle'), indicating a possible linguistic borrowing from Latin nepot-, which implies migration from or cultural contact with the Italic peninsula. Notably, in 1893, G. Kleinschmidt suggested the translation "haralio eptesio" could refer to Hippias, a tyrant of Athens who is believed to have died on Lemnos in 490 BC, indicating political connections reflected in the inscription.

This similarity has led scholars to hypothesize about ancient migrations and cultural exchanges across the Mediterranean. The Lemnian language, as evidenced by the stele, might represent a linguistic bridge between cultures of the Aegean and the Italian Peninsula, offering clues to the prehistoric movements and interactions of these ancient peoples.

The lemnian language

The Lemnian language, spoken on the Greek island of Lemnos during the latter part of the 6th century BC, serves as a crucial link in understanding the linguistic landscape of the ancient Mediterranean. Additional inscriptions found on pottery fragments and a newer inscription from Hephaistia underscore that Lemnian was a living language within the community. This linguistic connection is further solidified by the stele's use of the Western Greek alphabet, which shares similarities with the archaic variant used for Etruscan in southern Etruria, suggesting a shared or parallel linguistic evolution.

The alignment of Lemnian with Etruscan and Raetic, established through linguistic features such as unique dative cases and specific lexical correspondences, underscores a profound cross-regional linguistic and cultural exchange. Notable examples include the use of similar genitive and past tense constructions and numbers with comparable morphological structures. Despite these linguistic ties, the theory of a shared Tyrsenian language family, which includes Lemnian, posits a broader, perhaps pre-Indo-European, linguistic substrate in Europe.

Inscribed altar base of Hephaistia. Photograph courtesy of SAIA and Carlo de Simone.

This perspective is supported by recent genetic studies indicating that Etruscans were autochthonous to Italy, with no significant genetic links to Anatolia, suggesting that the language similarities found in Lemnos might reflect ancient migrations from the Italian peninsula rather than a direct connection with the Sea Peoples or other groups. This linguistic and genetic isolation frames the Lemnian language not only as a relic of ancient linguistic diversity but also as a window into the interactions that shaped the ancient Mediterranean world.

greek tradition on the Pelasgians and their Language

According to Greek tradition, the Pelasgians occupied large swaths of Greece before the arrival of the Greeks, notably in regions like Thessaly and Attica. Homer references them in the Iliad as allies of Troy, and in the Odyssey, they are depicted among the tribes populating the ninety cities of Crete.

Herodotus, the ancient Greek historian, talked about the Pelasgians, an ancient people who lived in various parts of Greece before the Greeks. He mentioned that these people, including those from the island of Lemnos, once lived in the region of Attica but were later expelled by the Athenians. Regarding their language, Herodotus wasn't sure exactly what language the Pelasgians spoke. However, he suggested that if we look at the language of the Pelasgians who were still around in his time—like those living in Creston and those who founded cities near the Hellespont after leaving Athens—we might conclude that the Pelasgians spoke a language that was very different from their Greek neighbors. He noted that in places like Creston and Placia, the people spoke a unique language that was different from any nearby languages, indicating that they preserved their original Pelasgian language even after moving to new areas.

Archaeological and Historical Context

The physical features of the stele suggest that it may have served as a grave marker or a monument celebrating the achievements of the individual depicted. The style of the carving and the script form a crucial part of the archaeological record, helping to place Lemnos within the broader networks of trade and cultural exchange in the Iron Age Mediterranean.

From an archaeological standpoint, the Lemnos Stele helps to fill a gap in our understanding of the socio-political structures of the island during the 6th century BC. The presence of such an inscription suggests a society with its own distinct identity and language yet clearly participating in the cultural and material exchanges that characterized the Mediterranean region at the time.

Challenges in Decipherment

The decipherment of the Lemnian language remains incomplete, with many challenges still to overcome. Unlike the Rosetta Stone, which provided a bilingual key to unlocking the Egyptian hieroglyphs, the Lemnos Stele offers text only in Lemnian, limiting direct comparison with better-understood languages. Each word and symbol on the stele is a puzzle piece in the broader picture of Iron Age languages, requiring meticulous analysis to understand its syntax and vocabulary.

The Lemnos Stele stands as a testament to the complex web of ancient Mediterranean civilizations. As both an artifact of cultural expression and a bearer of cryptic linguistic data, it challenges and enlightens modern scholars. In studying the Lemnos Stele, we delve deeper into the past, piecing together the movements, exchanges, and interactions that shaped the ancient world. The ongoing study of this remarkable stele not only enriches our understanding of ancient languages but also enhances our appreciation of the cultural and historical connections that link diverse societies across time and space. The decipherment and interpretation of the Lemnian inscriptions continue to hold the promise of unlocking further secrets of the ancient Mediterranean, making the Lemnos Stele a focal point of historical and linguistic research in the years to come.

Significant Bronze Age Wooden Well Unearthed

During the construction of the Benson Relief Road in Oxfordshire, Oxford Archaeology made a significant discovery—a well-preserved wooden well dating back to the Bronze Age. This find, excavated on behalf of Oxfordshire County Council, offers a rare glimpse into the ancient past, providing valuable insights into the land use and agricultural practices of the time.

Discovery and Excavation Process

The discovery occurred during a mandatory archaeological assessment required for the road construction project. The process involved a meticulous "strip, map, and sample" method, ensuring that any archaeological elements were carefully recorded. John Boothroyd, the senior project manager, noted that the excavation was performed under extremely challenging conditions, highlighting the team's dedication to preserving historical artifacts.

Archaeologists from Oxford Archaeology excavation the well. (Oxford Archaeology/Oxfordshire County Council)

Archaeological Insights and Importance

The well is believed to have been used primarily for agricultural irrigation, aiding nearby settlements. Judy Roberts, the cabinet member for infrastructure and development strategy, emphasized the well's importance, stating, "It gives us fantastic insight into the area’s past land use." This find not only sheds light on the Bronze Age's agricultural practices but also enriches our understanding of the region's historical landscape.

The preservation of wooden structures from this period is exceptionally rare, and the survival of this well is attributed to its waterlogged environment, which protected the wood from decay. The excavation team managed to expose and fully record the well, despite the challenging conditions. They collected specialized soil samples that will help reconstruct the surrounding landscape and determine the extent of human settlement during the well's use.

Further Analysis and Preservation

The timber structure was carefully documented digitally before being dismantled by hand and removed from the site for further analysis. A wood sample was sent for analysis to identify the type of wood and the tools used in its construction. This could provide additional information on the technological capabilities and resource utilization of the Bronze Age people.

In addition to the well, archaeologists found various artifacts such as struck flint, animal bones, and pottery used for storage and waste, indicating a broader use of the site over time. These findings will be stored with the Oxfordshire Museum Service, ensuring their preservation and availability for future research and public education.

The excavation of the Bronze Age wooden well by Oxford Archaeology not only highlights the rich historical tapestry of Oxfordshire but also underscores the critical role of archaeological surveys in modern construction projects. By carefully balancing development with the preservation of our ancient heritage, we continue to learn from and appreciate the complexities of human history. This project serves as a reminder of the intricate connection between our past and present, as every new discovery brings us closer to understanding the lives of those who walked the earth millennia before us.

Why Did Ancient Romans Make this Baffling Metal Dodecahedron?

Unraveling the Mystery: The Ancient Roman Dodecahedron Unearthed in England

This dodecahedron was found in Norton Disney in England and is one of the largest of its kind ever found, measuring 8 centimeters tall and weighing 254 grams.

Phil Crow/Alamy Stock Photo

In the quiet English village of Norton Disney, a remarkable discovery has captivated the archaeological community: a Roman dodecahedron, a perplexing 12-sided object crafted from a copper alloy and adorned with circular holes and protruding knobs. This discovery was made by the local Norton Disney Archaeology Group (NDAG), whose members were astonished by the artifact's exceptional condition and size—one of the largest found in Britain at 8 centimeters in height and weighing 245 grams.

Roman dodecahedra, first unearthed in the 18th century, continue to mystify experts as they are absent from ancient Roman texts and art. Over 130 examples have been found predominantly in Northern Europe, yet none in Italy, the heart of the Roman Empire. This absence in Italy further deepens the enigma surrounding their purpose, which remains speculative with theories ranging from religious artifacts to sophisticated crafting tools.

The Norton Disney dodecahedron's significance is underscored by its excellent preservation, suggesting it was a valued object. Further analyses, including an XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence) test, confirmed its composition predominantly of copper alloy, with traces of tin and lead. Plans for advanced scientific tests are underway to glean more insights.

Archaeological findings at the site, such as Iron Age pottery and a nearby Roman villa, indicate a rich historical usage of the area. This year, the NDAG aims to further excavate the site to uncover more about the mysterious dodecahedron's origins and purpose.

As the investigation continues, the intrigue surrounding this artifact only grows, promising to shed light on the sophisticated craftsmanship and perhaps the cultural significance of these enigmatic objects within the ancient Roman world.

Yamnaya: The Ancient Culture that Transformed Europe

Located perilously close to the current front lines of Russia's conflict in Ukraine is Mykhailivka, a village on the Dnieper River’s right bank. This site, which saw excavation by Ukrainian archaeologists seventy years ago, is pivotal for understanding the Yamnaya culture—one of the first known nomadic pastoralist societies, dating back about 5,000 years.

The Expansion of the Yamnaya

The Yamnaya culture is recognized for pioneering a nomadic lifestyle in the hostile Eurasian steppe, moving alongside their herds and spreading both east and west. Their physical remains might be sparse, limited mainly to long lines of burial mounds, but their influence was profound. As reported by The Economist, the Yamnaya left a lasting impact across Europe and much of Asia, transforming these regions genetically, culturally, and linguistically. Their most significant contribution is perhaps the Indo-European languages, now spoken by nearly half the world's population.

The Power of Ancient DNA

One of the intriguing finds at the Mykhailivka settlement in 1952 was a human tooth. At the time, the technology did not exist to extract much information from such relics. However, the last two decades have seen significant advancements in ancient DNA analysis, enabling scientists to uncover details about the Yamnaya people hidden within this tooth.

Origins Unveiled

Recent findings shared at a conference in Budapest reveal the Yamnaya's origins with new clarity. Emerging from an ancestral population in the steppe during the fourth millennium BC, their genetic makeup was a blend of genes from the Caucasus, Siberia, and Europe. This mix was the result of extensive migrations and intermingling.

A New Perspective on Migration

The significance of a recently identified mural, as explained by Alexey Nikitin, a Ukrainian-born paleogeneticist at Grand Valley State University in Michigan, cannot be overstated. This mural illustrates the Bronze Age migrations initiated by the Yamnaya, highlighting a crucial period of population transformation in Europe that followed the end of the last Ice Age.

Political Context of Research

The research presented in Budapest by Dr. Nikitin was part of two studies coordinated by David Reich, a Harvard University paleogeneticist. These studies, not yet peer-reviewed, offer insights based on shared data but are described differently by Russian and Ukrainian scientists due to political sensitivities.

Conclusion

While the Yamnaya are often credited with aggressive expansions, reshaping the genetic pool of Europe by replacing up to 90% of the indigenous farmers' genes, recent genetic and archaeological studies suggest a more nuanced interaction. Some researchers, like Thomas Booth from the Francis Crick Institute in London, propose that these changes were achieved not through widespread violence but through smaller, mostly peaceful waves of migrations that integrated over generations.

This new understanding presents the Yamnaya not as conquerors but as a complex society that, through a combination of movement and mingling, left an indelible mark on the history of Europe. As we continue to uncover more about their way of life and movements, the image of the Yamnaya as mere warriors gives way to a more diverse and nuanced identity.

Archaeologists Discover 2,500-Year-Old Helmet in a Tomb - 'It Inspired Awe in the Enemy'

Archaeologists in Croatia have unearthed a 2,500-year-old metal helmet within an Illyrian burial mound, which may have been a votive offering or part of a religious practice.

The helmet was found in a stone structure within a burial mound at the archaeological site of Gomil. It dates back to the late 6th century BC and the early 4th century BC, as reported by Hrvoje Potrebica, a professor of archaeology at the University of Zagreb who leads the excavation.

Gomil: A Site with Many Burial Mounds The site of Gomil has many burial mounds and is located near the village of Zakotorac, on the Pelješac peninsula near the Adriatic Sea. "Each mound contains multiple graves, and each grave contains multiple burials," said Potrebica.

This 3D model shows the burial mound where the helmet was discovered by archaeologists. (Photo: Miroslav Vuković)

According to ancient Greek records, a people whom the Greeks called Illyrians thrived in the area during the time the helmet was made. The Illyrians were divided into various tribes and kingdoms and were gradually conquered by the Romans in a series of wars that took place between 229 and 168 BC.

Although the newly discovered helmet must undergo a conservation process, "it appears to be in perfect condition," said Potrebica. "The stone structure that holds the helmet is distinct from all the tombs in the burial monument, which suggests that it was intended as a votive offering to deceased ancestors or part of a religious practice related to the entire mound and not a specific individual or tomb," added Potrebica.

The Psychological Impact of the Helmet If the newly discovered helmet was used in battle, it might have had a psychological impact on the enemy, according to Domagoj Perkić, director of the Archaeological Museum, which is part of the Museums of Dubrovnik, and a researcher involved in the excavation. "Imagine a warrior with a gleaming helmet on his head, in the sun, on the eve of a battle… the mere sight of it would inspire awe in the enemy."

In 2020, archaeologists discovered another helmet in a stone structure in a nearby burial mound, reported Potrebica. Like the helmet found now, it was probably not intended for any individual or tomb.

The Center for Prehistoric Research in Zagreb, where Potrebica is the director, coordinates research in the Gomil area and collaborates with scientists from the Museums of Dubrovnik and the Institute of Archaeology in Croatia.

Prostitution in Ancient Egypt: A Complex Social Phenomenon

Prostitution, often regarded as the world's oldest profession, had its place in ancient civilizations, including that of Ancient Egypt. However, understanding prostitution in Ancient Egypt requires an examination of its societal, religious, and legal aspects, which often diverge significantly from modern perceptions of sex work.

Social Context and Acceptance

In Ancient Egypt, sex was not inherently taboo or associated with guilt as it would be in many later Western societies. The Egyptians viewed sexual expression as a natural part of life, which was integrated into their mythology, religion, and daily activities. Prostitution existed, but its forms and the social attitudes towards it were complex and multifaceted.

The role of women in Egyptian society provided a backdrop to the nature of prostitution. Women in Ancient Egypt could own property, initiate divorce, and manage their own business dealings. This independence might have extended to some who engaged in sex work, allowing them to manage their affairs to a degree that would be uncommon in many other ancient cultures.

Religious and Mythological Influences

The religious context in Egypt also influenced perceptions of prostitution. The cult of the goddess Isis, for instance, incorporated sacred sexuality as part of its religious observance. Some interpretations suggest that ritualistic acts which could be classified as 'sacred prostitution' were performed by priestesses of Isis. This was not prostitution in the commercial sense but a spiritual service that was believed to bridge the divine with the mundane.

Moreover, certain festivals, most notably the Feast of Hathor, would involve ceremonial activities that celebrated fertility and sexuality. These could be perceived as forms of ritualized prostitution, but again, they were conducted within a religious framework that differed significantly from the commercial sex work seen in other cultures.

Legal and Economic Aspects

Documentary evidence on the regulation and organization of prostitution in Ancient Egypt is sparse. Unlike Mesopotamia with its well-documented provisions regarding prostitution, Egyptian texts do not provide clear indications of the legal status of sex workers. However, some references in medical texts and literature suggest that prostitution was known and practiced.

Economically, women who engaged in prostitution might have done so out of necessity. The profession could offer a means of survival in the absence of other economic opportunities. In this sense, prostitution was just another facet of the labor market, albeit one that was likely stigmatized or looked down upon, much like in many other ancient societies.

Artistic and Literary Representations

Art and literature from Ancient Egypt also provide insights into the role of sexuality and, by extension, prostitution. Erotic poetry from the Ramesside period (1307-1070 BCE) suggests a society with a candid acceptance of sexuality. Meanwhile, depictions in art might include subtle allusions to the act of prostitution but interpreting these representations is challenging due to the symbolic nature of Egyptian art.

Conclusion

Prostitution in Ancient Egypt cannot be fully understood through a modern lens or equated directly with contemporary notions of sex work. It was a complex institution that intersected with religion, economy, and social structures in ways that were uniquely Egyptian. Recognizing this complexity is crucial to gaining a deeper understanding of how sexuality and survival intertwined in the ancient world.

This nuanced view of prostitution in Ancient Egypt highlights the civilization's sophisticated approach to matters of sexuality and societal structure, revealing a culture that, in many ways, was both pragmatic and spiritually rich.

Source:
Sex and Society in Ancient Egypt" by Lisa Manniche
The Literature of Ancient Egypt" edited by William Kelly Simpson
Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many" by Erik Hornung

12 Most Mysterious Recent Archaeological Finds And Artifacts Scientists Still Can't Explain

This video delves into the enigmatic world of archaeology, highlighting twelve recent discoveries that baffle scientists with their origins and purposes. Here are some intriguing findings from the video:

🐇 Pre-Hispanic Mural in Mexico:

• Unexpected Deity Depiction: Archaeologists in Mexico uncovered a mural initially thought to depict the Virgin Mary, which turned out to be Teosinte, the Aztec deity of alcohol. This discovery challenges the historical understanding of religious syncretism in early colonial Mexico.

🏺 Gorgon Medusa Military Medal:

• Ancient Greek Symbolism: A unique military medal carved in the shape of Medusa, often seen as a guardian, was discovered in Turkey, signifying protective symbolism in military accolades over 1,800 years ago.

⚓ Roman Anchor in English Waters:

• Maritime History: The largest and oldest Roman anchor ever found in Britain was discovered off the coast, suggesting advanced maritime activities by the Roman fleet known as Classis Britannica.

🛶 Ancient Canoes in Wisconsin:

• Prehistoric Transportation: Two ancient canoes, including one dating back 3,000 years, were found in Lake Mendota, Wisconsin, indicating early indigenous watercraft technology and possibly a lakeside settlement.

👤 Headless Human Remains in Slovakia:

• Ceremonial or Cultic Practices: Archaeologists found 36 headless bodies near a Stone Age settlement in Slovakia, with speculations about their decapitation being part of ancient ritual practices.

🎺 Roman Cornu in the UK:

• Musical Communication: A rare Roman cornu mouthpiece, used for battlefield commands, highlights the sophistication of Roman military communication methods.

🕰️ Roman Sundial in Turkey:

• Timekeeping Artifact: An exceptionally preserved Roman sundial found in Aizanoi, Turkey, illustrates advanced timekeeping and social organization in ancient Roman cities.

These findings, each rich in historical context, underscore the complex and often mysterious tapestry of human history, revealing how much remains to be discovered and understood about our ancestors' lives.

Terrifying Beauty Discovered on Google Earth

This video captures a captivating journey into a remote canyon explored using Google Earth, revealing both the historical significance and natural splendor of the area. Here are the key highlights:

🌍 Remote Exploration:

• Initial Discovery: The adventurer uses Google Earth to locate a canyon filled with deep sandstone cavities, sparking curiosity due to the minimal information available about this place.

🏞️ Stunning Natural Features:

• Geological Wonders: The canyon features unusual geology with fascinating rock formations, including caves and balanced rock structures, which provide a visual feast and hint at the area's complex geological history.

🦇 Bat Cave Phenomenon:

• Nightly Spectacle: One of the most mesmerizing discoveries is a cave that serves as a habitat for tens of thousands of Mexican free-tailed bats. The video captures the breathtaking moment these bats emerge at dusk, a natural event that highlights the ecological significance of bats in controlling insect populations.

🌱 Rich Biodiversity:

• Diverse Flora and Fauna: The area's rich biodiversity is evident through the variety of plant life and animal sightings, including the unique interactions with the local bat population.

🛤️ Human History and Native Lore:

• Cultural Heritage: The canyon is steeped in Native American history, potentially housing ancient ruins and being linked to the legendary Apache Chief Geronimo, enhancing the cultural depth of the exploration.

This video not only showcases the adventurer's journey through this less-traveled canyon but also emphasizes the importance of preserving such natural habitats that play a critical role in our ecological and cultural heritage.

They Recorded It in the Amazon Jungle & Nobody Can Believe It...

This video offers a riveting glimpse into the extraordinary and often unbelievable wildlife encounters recorded in the Amazon Jungle. Here are some of the most notable highlights:

🐍 Man Catches Anaconda:

• Bold Encounter: A man audaciously grabs the tail of a massive anaconda from his boat, showcasing both the daring nature of humans and the formidable presence of anacondas in the Amazon.

👽 Mysterious Creature Sighting:

• Unidentified Animal: Explorers encounter a strange creature with a bizarre appearance, sparking widespread speculation online about its origins, ranging from alien theories to experimental mutations.

🦎 Strange Lizard-like Creature:

• Hybrid Appearance: A creature with mixed features resembling both a lizard and a crocodile is spotted, adding to the jungle's mystique and the array of unclassified wildlife that possibly exists there.

🎣 Fisherman's Loch Ness Encounter:

• Unexpected Catch: A fisherman seeking the Loch Ness monster catches a giant catfish instead, illustrating the unexpected nature of fishing and exploration in vast waters.

🧬 Dinosaur Carcass Discovery:

• Astonishing Find: An explorer discovers a remarkably well-preserved dinosaur carcass in the Amazon, considered one of the best-preserved dinosaur specimens ever found.

🐊 Gigantic Snake and Crocodile Interactions:

• Large Reptiles: The Amazon's large reptilian inhabitants, including enormous snakes and crocodiles, continue to awe and sometimes frighten those who venture into their domain.

These extraordinary encounters highlight the vast and often mysterious biodiversity of the Amazon Jungle, reminding us of the many secrets it still holds. The footage captured not only entertains but also plays a crucial role in educating the public about the lesser-seen inhabitants of one of the world's largest and most diverse ecosystems.

DNA Test May Have Finally Solved The Mystery Of The Ancient “Shroud of Turin”

The video delves into the ongoing debate about the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin, a relic believed by many to bear the imprint of Jesus Christ's body. Here are the key insights from the video:

🧬 Scientific Analysis and DNA Testing:

• Radiocarbon Dating: In the 1980s, radiocarbon tests suggested the Shroud was created between 1260 and 1390, indicating it might be a medieval creation.

• Controversy and Challenges: Critics argued that the sample used might have been contaminated or not representative of the entire cloth, questioning the radiocarbon dating results.

🌍 Global DNA Evidence:

• Diverse Genetic Traces: In 2015, scientists found DNA from various geographic origins on the Shroud, including sequences that suggested contact with individuals from North Africa, Eastern Africa, and even China.

🌱 Botanical Evidence:

• Plant DNA: Analysis also revealed traces of DNA from multiple plant species ranging from Mediterranean to North American origins, suggesting a complex history of the Shroud's geographical journey or exposure.

🔍 Historical and Cultural Context:

• The Shroud's Journey: Historically, the Shroud is said to have traveled from Jerusalem to Constantinople, then to France, and finally to its current location in Turin, Italy.

This exploration raises more questions than answers, suggesting that while science has brought us closer to understanding the Shroud's origins, many aspects of its history remain shrouded in mystery. This complexity adds to the intrigue surrounding one of the most studied and controversial religious artifacts in the world.