The Enigmatic Language of the Etruscans: Non-Indo-European?

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Etruscan language, once spoken in the region of Etruria (modern Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio) in Italy, remains one of antiquity’s greatest enigmas, its secrets only partially unlocked. Though no longer living, its legacy endures through inscriptions and a handful of bilingual texts, offering a window into the lives of the enigmatic Etruscans.

From Greek Columns to Etruscan Inscriptions: The Alphabet's Journey

The Etruscan alphabet is the earliest recorded script in the Western world after the Greek script. It was adopted from the Greek alphabet of the Euboean variant, used by Greek colonists in Italy, specifically in Ischia and Cumae. This adoption likely occurred during the 8th century BC, coinciding with the flourishing of Etruscan civilization. The Etruscan script underwent a transformation tailored maybe to their non-Indo-European linguistic structure; some Greek letters were repurposed to represent Etruscan sounds, and a few were discarded as they were unnecessary for Etruscan phonetics.

The Etruscans

The Etruscans emerged as a distinct civilization by the beginning of the first millennium BC, dominating the cultural and economic landscape of pre-Roman Italy. They were skilled metalworkers, merchants, and seafarers, leaving a durable imprint on Roman religion, architecture, and society. Their social structure was complex, with evidence of significant roles for women, and their art and culture were rich with religious symbolism.

A Tale of Two Origins: Myth and Modern Inquiry

According to ancient lore, the Etruscans were the descendants of the mysterious Lydians, as narrated by Herodotus. He recounts a myth where the Lydians, under King Tyrrhenus, left their famine-stricken lands in Asia Minor, sailing westward to find a new home in Italy. This narrative has long colored the perceptions of the Etruscan origin, casting them as an exotic people with an eastern heritage.

Maximum extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, an ancient Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, provided a contrasting viewpoint to the prevailing theories of his time concerning the origins of the Etruscans. In his work "Roman Antiquities," Dionysius presented a strong argument in favor of the Etruscans being autochthonous, meaning originating from the land itself, in this case, the Italian Peninsula. He contested the then-popular belief, as recounted by Herodotus, that the Etruscans were of Lydian descent.

Dionysius' opinion was rooted in several observations: the uniqueness of the Etruscan language, which did not resemble any other known tongues; the distinctive nature of their customs and laws; and the lack of any migration stories in their own historical records, which he presumed would exist if they had migrated from Asia Minor. He critiqued Herodotus' account as being based on mythical tales rather than concrete evidence. Moreover, Dionysius argued that the Etruscans shared physical characteristics with the indigenous peoples of the region, further supporting his autochthonous theory.

He went to considerable lengths to refute the Lydian origin theory, appealing to logical arguments and existing knowledge about the Etruscans and their culture. This stance by Dionysius of Halicarnassus has been one that modern archaeology and genetics have, to some extent, corroborated, showing a continuity of the Etruscan lineage within Italy and challenging the once widely accepted tale of their foreign origins.

Genetic studies suggest that the Etruscans were local to the Italian peninsula, with their DNA showing continuity with Neolithic farmers. This indigenous development theory is further supported by archaeological evidence, which indicates a gradual evolution of Etruscan culture from the earlier Villanovan civilization.

The Cippus Perusinus, a stone tablet bearing 46 lines of incised Etruscan text, one of the longest extant Etruscan inscriptions. 3rd or 2nd century BC.

A Historical Overview of Etruscan Language Theories

The Etruscan language, originating from the ancient Etruscan civilization within the regions of Etruria, Etruria Padana, and Etruria Campana in what is now Italy, has left a legacy of approximately 13,000 inscriptions dating from 700 BC to AD 50. Although most inscriptions are brief, there are some longer and bilingual texts, suggesting that while Etruscan influenced Latin, it was eventually replaced by it. Linguists and Etruscologists generally agree that Etruscan was a pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European language related to the Raetic and Lemnian languages.

Inscriptions reveal the geographic spread of the Etruscan language across Italy and beyond. The consensus is that Etruscan was related to Raetic and Lemnian, forming part of the Tyrsenian language family, which predates Indo-European languages in southern Europe. Recent archeogenetic analysis supports the autochthonous nature of the Etruscans, genetically similar to the Early Iron Age Latins.

Historically, various theories have attempted to classify the Etruscan language, ranging from Indo-European to Semitic connections, most of which have been dismissed in favor of its status as a non-Indo-European and Paleo-European language.

Throughout history, numerous theories have been posited regarding the origins and classification of the Etruscan language, many of which have been deemed speculative or unfounded. The general scholarly consensus is that Etruscan, part of the Tyrsenian language family, is neither Indo-European nor Semitic but rather a pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European language, closely related to Raetic and Lemnian.

One hypothesis considered Etruscan as part of a Paleo-European "Aegean" language family, alongside Minoan and Eteocretan, with potential ties to pre-Indo-European Anatolian languages. However, this connection has been largely dismissed.

The Anatolian Indo-European hypothesis, which suggested a relationship between Etruscan and the languages of Anatolia, such as Luwian, has been influenced by Herodotus' account of the Lydian origins of the Etruscans. Despite these theories and attempts to link Etruscan to Anatolian Indo-European languages or propose that the Etruscans brought the alphabet from Anatolia, scholarly evidence has not supported these claims.

Other fringe theories have ranged from Etruscan's origins being connected to Aramaic, Semitic languages, Armenian, Albanian, Uralic languages, and even Altaic languages. These theories have included suggestions of genetic relationships with Hungarian and connections with Northeast Caucasian languages. Such theories, including those positing that the Etruscan language influenced Hungarian, have been largely rejected by specialists in Etruscan, Finno-Ugric, and historical linguistics.

While there have been many attempts to classify Etruscan within various language families, the prevailing view among experts is that it shares kinship only with the Raetic and Lemnian languages and is an indigenous language of the Italian peninsula with no proven connection to the major language families of Indo-European or Semitic origins.

The Capua Tile, one of the longest Etruscan inscriptions, possibly 5th C BC. Image from Wikipedia.

The Etruscan language, a beacon of a civilization that influenced the course of Western history, still poses significant questions. Its alphabet, a product of cultural exchange with the Greeks, reveals the interconnectedness of ancient societies. The identity of the Etruscans, entangled with myth and history, reflects the complex narratives that ancient civilizations left behind. Whether as travelers from distant lands or children of the Italian soil, their legacy continues to captivate scholars and enthusiasts alike, a testament to the enduring allure of the ancient world.

The Golden Etruscan Orphic Book: The World's Oldest Book

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Bulgaria's Golden Wonder: The Tale of the Etruscan Orphic Book

The ancient world holds many secrets, waiting for intrepid archaeologists to unveil them. Among these mysterious artifacts, one gleams brighter than most—the Golden Book of Orpheus. Currently showcased in the National Historical Museum in Sofia, Bulgaria, it is not just a treasure trove of history but a testament to human craftsmanship and spiritual endeavors from millennia ago.

Discovery and History

The Golden Orphism Book was discovered quite serendipitously about 70 years ago. As a soldier toiled away, digging a canal around the Struma River, he stumbled upon what would later be recognized as one of the world's oldest preserved books.

Dating back to around 660 BC, this ancient codex is comprised of six pages, each measuring 5 cm by 4.5 cm. Made from 23.82-karat gold, these pages are bound together with gold rings, presenting a dazzling and magnificent sight. The entire artifact weighs a delicate 100 grams.

Etruscan Influence and Cultural Significance

The contents of the book are written in Etruscan characters, a language of the Etruscans, an ancient civilization that originated in Lydia (modern-day Turkey) and was later settled in central Italy almost three millennia ago. Illustrations on the plates depict various symbols and figures, such as a horse, a horseman, a siren, a lyre, and soldiers, pointing towards the rich cultural tapestry of that era.

The book's Etruscan connection, particularly its writings, hint at the mystical rites and practices surrounding death. Scholars believe this artifact is related to the funeral of an aristocrat devoted to the Orphic cult, a belief system rooted in the mythic tales of Orpheus.

Orphic Connection

Orphism, tied closely to Thracian and Hellenistic traditions, found resurgence in the 6th century BC with the Greek philosopher Pythagoras. Its origins in Thrace make the discovery of the book in Bulgaria even more significant, and the linkage with Etruscan culture underlines the intermingling of beliefs in ancient times.

Interestingly, while individual pages of Etruscan "Orpheus" books have been found scattered in various parts of the world, only in Bulgaria was a complete book discovered with its pages still connected by golden rings.

Current Status and Future Studies

Generously donated to Bulgaria’s National History Museum by an anonymous 87-year-old benefactor, the book is now stored in the NIM Cellar. It has undergone extensive examination by experts both in Sofia and London, with translations of its text currently underway.

The discovery of the Golden Etruscan Orphism Book reminds us of the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations and the rich cultural legacies they left behind. As scientists and historians continue to decode its secrets, the book stands as a gilded beacon, bridging the past with the present and underscoring the enduring human quest for understanding and meaning.

The pages and cover are made of 23.82-carat gold. The quality of the work of the craftsmen who made this book indicates the advanced goldsmith techniques used by the Etruscans.

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REFERENCES:

• Golden Orphism Book

• ЗЛАТНАТА ОРФЕЕВА КНИГА (The Golden Orphism Book)

• Ще бъде ли потвърдена автентичността на Златната орфическа книга? (Will the authenticity of the Golden Orphic Book be confirmed?)

• Какво се знае за загадъчната "златна книга"? (What is known about the mysterious "golden book"?)

• ЗАГАДЪЧНАТА ЗЛАТНА “КНИГА” (THE MYSTERIOUS GOLDEN "BOOK")

The Remarkable Legacy of Viking Queen Thyra: A Forgotten Power

The annals of Viking history are teeming with tales of powerful kings who left their mark on the pages of time. However, recent research has illuminated the often overlooked stories of Viking women who wielded significant influence as rulers. Among these remarkable women, Queen Thyra emerges as a figure of exceptional significance. Analyzing four recently discovered runestones that bear her name, scholars have connected the dots to unveil a vivid portrait of a Viking queen whose strength and impact surpassed even that of her celebrated contemporaries.

The Runestones Speak

During the Viking Age, a period spanning from approximately 800 to 1050, the seafaring peoples of Scandinavia expanded their reach across Europe through trade and conquest. As part of their rich culture, Vikings erected imposing runestones to commemorate important individuals who had passed away. These stones, adorned with vibrant colors, were strategically placed in high-traffic areas for all to see. In Denmark alone, approximately 250 runestones from the Viking Age have been documented.

The royal seat of Denmark during this era was Jelling, and it is here that archaeologists uncovered the first traces of Queen Thyra. Two runestones were discovered in this region, each bearing her name and honoring her memory. One, commissioned by her husband King Gorm, pays tribute to Thyra as "Denmark's strength and salvation." The other, commissioned by her son King Harald Bluetooth, lauds her as "his mother" and credits him with unifying Denmark and Norway while converting the Danes to Christianity.

Beyond Jelling, two more runestones were identified in the Danish towns of Bække and Læborg, which mentioned both Queen Thyra and a runestone carver named Ravnunge-Tue. The Læborg runestone referred to Thyra as "his lady" or "his queen." Scholars once debated whether these references were to the same Queen Thyra from the Jelling runestones. However, through meticulous 3D scanning, researchers have made a compelling case that these inscriptions allude to the same remarkable Viking queen.

A RUNESTONE COMMEMORATING QUEEN THYRA, CREDIT: ROBERTO FORTUNA, NATIONAL MUSEUM OF DENMARK

Queen Thyra's Pervasive Influence

The significance of Queen Thyra's legacy becomes apparent when one considers that her name appears on more runestones than any other individual in Viking-Age Denmark, surpassing the mentions of her famous son, King Harald Bluetooth. This revelation suggests that Queen Thyra played an instrumental role in the formation of Denmark, a role that had been previously underestimated.

Lisbeth M. Imer, a senior researcher at the National Museum of Denmark and the lead author of the groundbreaking research, explains, "Political and administrative life in Viking-Age Denmark was dominated by men, but it seems that some women also had power." This discovery challenges the perception of the Viking Age as a male-dominated society and highlights the presence of elite women, particularly those from royal families, in positions of power and influence.

Nevertheless, Queen Thyra's specific role remains elusive due to the scarcity of primary sources. The four runestones that mention her represent the only known Viking-Age sources that reference this queen. However, early 13th-century historians in Denmark described her as a wise and resourceful queen, drawing upon an oral tradition about Thyra's life that has since been lost to history.

In the 19th century, Queen Thyra was celebrated as a heroic figure in Danish history, often hailed as the "mother of the nation." Late 12th-century historians Sven Aggesen and Saxo Grammaticus attributed the construction of the Danevirke, a series of fortifications defending Denmark's southern borders, to Queen Thyra. In contrast, King Gorm, her husband, who is only commemorated on a single runestone commissioned by Harald, was described as weak and indolent.

A Broader Perspective

The revelation of Queen Thyra's prominence paves the way for reconsidering the role of other elite Viking women who may have held significant political power during their time. Lisbeth M. Imer aptly advises that in our study of the Viking Age, "we shouldn't rule out the possibility of women being able to hold power in their own right."

As we delve deeper into the annals of Viking history, Queen Thyra's story serves as a testament to the remarkable women who, despite facing a male-dominated societal landscape, managed to carve out their own path and leave an indelible mark on the world. The Viking Age continues to reveal its secrets, reminding us that history is a tapestry woven not only by kings but also by formidable queens like Thyra, whose strength and influence have resurfaced from the mists of time.

The Vibrant Panel from the Tomb of the Dancers: A Testament to Ancient Artistry and Cultural Exchange

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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At the heart of Ruvo di Puglia, an Italian town in the metropolitan city of Bari in Puglia, a discovery from circa 400–350 BC continues to dazzle the world with its vibrancy and evocative representation of ancient life and merriment. The famed panel from the Tomb of the Dancers provides not just an unparalleled glimpse into antiquity but also serves as a bridge connecting the artistic traditions of the ancient Greeks and Etruscans.

Delving Deeper into the Tomb of the Dancers

The Tomb of the Dancers is a paramount example of the cultural and artistic effervescence of the 4th century BC. The tomb is an underground chamber tomb, a type commonly associated with the Peucetians, an ancient Italic people. Its unique frescoes have illuminated our understanding of Italic funerary practices and beliefs, suggesting a synthesis of indigenous traditions and Hellenic influences.

The dancers, adorned in typical ancient attire, move harmoniously across the chamber walls, inviting speculation about their societal roles and the nature of the depicted ceremony. Intriguingly, the frescoes also showcase a series of birds, hinting at possible ornithological symbolism or beliefs in the soul's transcendence. The Tomb of the Dancers isn’t just a mausoleum; it's a narrative canvas, telling tales of an era where death, life, art, and spirituality wove together into a tapestry of shared human experience.

Colors of Antiquity

The first thing that captures an observer's attention when examining the panel is the sheer brilliance and preservation of its colors. Deep reds, yellows, and blues interspersed with earthy browns and gentle hues of white tell the story of an ancient palette that was both rich and varied. The hues have been extracted from nature—mineral pigments, plants, and other organic sources—reflecting the ancients’ profound understanding of natural resources.

Movement and Life

The name "Tomb of the Dancers" is no accident. The panel portrays a dynamic scene of dancers reveling in the throes of a celebration or perhaps a ritual. The way the figures are rendered, with limbs stretched out and garments flowing, gives a tangible sense of movement. You can almost hear the music to which these ancient figures danced.

Individuality and Expression

Unlike some ancient art, where figures can appear standardized or even stolid, the Tomb of the Dancers captures the essence of individuality. Each dancer possesses a unique posture, facial expression, and even hairstyle. This not only serves as a testament to the artist's acute observational skills but also offers insights into the diversity and individual expression cherished in ancient societies.

Greek Influences and the Evolution of Roman Artistry

The artistic style and motifs found in the Tomb of the Dancers have their roots in the Greek tradition. The ancient Greeks were pioneers in many art forms, from sculpture to painting, and they celebrated human form, movement, and emotion. This Greek aesthetic had a profound influence on the regions they interacted with, including the Italian peninsula.

The Hellenistic period, emerging after the conquests of Alexander the Great and lasting from the 4th to the 1st century BC, was characterized by a remarkable spread and fusion of Greek culture across the known world. Hellenistic paintings, in particular, broke from the idealism of the Classical era, opting for more emotional intensity, intricate details, and realism. These artworks depicted daily life, landscapes, and even still lives, revealing a broader spectrum of human experience. As the Roman Republic expanded and came into close contact with Hellenistic kingdoms, they were deeply influenced by this artistic evolution.

Banquet scene from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, 4th century BC.

Three main qualities unique to Hellenistic painting style were three-dimensional perspective, the use of light and shade to render form, and trompe-l'œil realism.

Roman frescoes, often found in the luxurious villas of Pompeii and Herculaneum, bore the marks of this Hellenistic inspiration. They adopted the rich color palettes, depth, and perspective techniques and were notably influenced by the genre scenes, landscapes, and portraiture of Hellenistic art. In essence, through their vast conquests and subsequent cultural assimilations, the Romans became the torchbearers of Hellenistic art, refining it and making it an integral part of their architectural and artistic narrative.

However, as the Etruscan and later Roman civilizations began to rise and assimilate various cultures and their artistic traditions, a synthesis occurred. While the Romans drew heavily from the Greeks, they added their own touch, emphasizing particular themes, subjects, and techniques. The frescoes in Roman villas and public buildings are classic examples of this blended tradition.

The fresco technique, where paint is applied on wet plaster, was employed by both Greeks and Romans, making it a shared tradition that spanned centuries and evolved stylistic nuances. The Tomb of the Dancers, while predating the zenith of Roman art, can be seen as part of this continuum, where the artistic baton passed from the Greeks to the Romans.

The vibrant panel from the Tomb of the Dancers stands as a monument to the artistry of ancient civilizations and their interconnected histories. It serves as a brilliant reminder that art is not just a reflection of the time in which it was created but also a window into the cultural exchanges, innovations, and shared human experiences of epochs past. The connections between Greek and Italic paintings and fresco history, exemplified in masterpieces like this, underline the intertwined nature of their civilizations and their lasting impact on the art world.

How DNA reveals Vikings never left Scotland

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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In the 8th and 9th centuries, Vikings conquered many of Scotland's islands as well as the mainland. They came, they conquered, and they left, or so the story seemed to go. Now historians are reassessing the legacy the Vikings left on islands like Islay, a small island of about 3,000 inhabitants off the west coast of Scotland. Linguistic and DNA evidence now suggests that the Vikings never really left at all, as BBC Reel's Melissa Hogenboom reports.

DNA Revelations: The Lingering Viking Legacy in Scotland

The Viking invasions, spanning from the late 8th to early 11th centuries, left an indelible mark on the regions they touched. Scotland, with its close proximity to Scandinavia, bore witness to numerous Viking raids, settlements, and cultural exchanges. Over the centuries, historical records and archaeological findings have provided insights into the Viking presence in Scotland. However, recent advances in genetic studies have offered a more intimate understanding, suggesting that the Vikings didn't merely touch the Scottish shores and leave—tthey became an integral part of its genetic fabric.

Decoding the Genetic Evidence

The advent of sophisticated DNA testing technologies has enabled researchers to delve deeper into the genetic heritage of populations. By examining the Y-chromosomes (passed from father to son) of men in the UK, scientists have identified markers, or specific sequences of DNA, that are associated with Norse Viking ancestry.

1. Geographic Patterns: In regions of Scotland known historically for having strong Norse Viking settlements, such as the Shetland and Orkney islands, a significant proportion of the male population carries these Norse genetic markers. In Orkney, for instance, studies suggest that as many as 60% of the male lineage could be of Norse origin.

2. Continuity of Lineage: The sheer prevalence of Norse DNA markers in these regions indicates not just a fleeting presence but a sustained settlement and integration of the Vikings into local communities.

Reconciling with History

Historical records, sagas, and archaeological findings have long confirmed the Norse Viking influence in Scotland. From place names to artifacts, the Viking legacy has been evident. DNA studies further corroborate these historical accounts.

1. Settlement Over Raiding: While the Vikings initially arrived as raiders, they soon transitioned to settlers, particularly in the Northern Isles and along the west coast of Scotland. Over time, these Norse settlers intermarried with the local populace, leading to a genetic blending that is evident today.

2. Cultural Integration: The Norse didn't just leave their genetic footprint; they also influenced language, culture, and trade. The Norn language, a North Germanic language spoken in the Northern Isles until the 18th century, is a testament to this integration.

What This Means for Scotland

The DNA evidence underscores a vital facet of Scottish identity. While Scotland has its own unique cultural and historical narrative, it has always been a mosaic of influences, from the Romans and Picts to the Celts and Vikings.

The genetic legacy of the Vikings in Scotland reiterates the idea that histories are not just about conquests and kings; they are about everyday people, communities, and the intricate relationships they forge. The Vikings, once seen as foreign invaders, are now recognized as ancestors by many in Scotland, underscoring the fluidity of identity and the lasting ties that bind cultures together.

In unveiling the secrets embedded in our genes, DNA research has painted a nuanced picture of the Viking Age in Scotland. More than just raiders or traders, the Vikings were settlers, neighbors, and eventually family. Their legacy, intricately woven into Scotland's genetic tapestry, stands as a testament to the enduring connections forged in the crucible of history.

A Brief History Of Slavery In the Viking Era

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Unveiling a Darker Side of Nordic History

In recent years, historians have established that slavery during the Viking era was far more common than once believed. And it was during this era that, for the first time, Scandinavians made the capture and use of slaves a key part of their economy and military campaigns. In fact, some historians now argue that the Vikings were responsible for more human trafficking in the period 750–1050 C.E. than any other civilization. Although slavery existed in some form in Scandinavia long before the Viking era, it was during this period that we saw a sharp uptake in the number of slaves.

When one thinks of Vikings, images of fearsome warriors, expert sailors, and legendary raids often come to mind. While these portrayals hold truth, there's a less explored facet of Viking society that remains essential to understanding their way of life: the institution of slavery. Just like other ancient civilizations, the Viking Age (circa 793–1066 AD) witnessed a thriving slave trade, providing vital insights into the socio-economic fabric of the Nordic world.

Origins of Viking Slavery

Slavery, or "thrall" (þræll in Old Norse), was deeply embedded in Norse society long before the Viking Age. Origin tales like the 'Rígsthula,' a poetic lay from the Old Norse 'Poetic Edda,' recounts the story of the god Ríg, who sires the classes of slaves, freemen, and nobles, indicating the age-old acceptance of this social hierarchy.

Sources of Slaves

Viking raids, which remain infamous for their ferocity and scale, were significant sources of slaves. Monasteries, villages, and towns across Europe, particularly in the British Isles, were favorite targets. The inhabitants of these raided settlements were often captured and enslaved.

Another source was the internal economy of the Nordic regions. Poverty or debt could push individuals into slavery, either voluntarily or involuntarily. Furthermore, the children of slaves were automatically considered slaves, perpetuating the cycle across generations.

Roles and Living Conditions

Slaves in the Viking world were primarily used for manual labor. They tilled fields, tended livestock, and did household chores. Skilled slaves, although a minority, could be artisans, craftspeople, or even attendants.

Living conditions for slaves were understandably harsh. They were often subject to the whims of their masters, with little to no rights. Physical punishments were common, and their freedom of movement was restricted. However, it's worth noting that the treatment of slaves varied widely, contingent on the disposition of their masters and the specific roles they played.

Economic Significance

Slaves were considered valuable commodities in Viking society. They were often traded in markets across Europe and Asia, forming an integral part of the Viking economy. Notable trading centers, like the one at Hedeby at the southern tip of the Jutland Peninsula, saw the exchange of slaves for various goods, from Arabic silver to exotic spices.

The End of Slavery in the Viking World

The decline of Viking raids and the increasing Christianization of Scandinavia in the late Viking Age played significant roles in curbing the slave trade. Christian doctrine, emphasizing the inherent value of all human beings, conflicted with the concept of slavery. By the late Middle Ages, as Scandinavian kingdoms centralized and legal systems evolved, the institution of slavery began its gradual decline, eventually fading into obscurity.

Slavery in the Viking era stands as a stark reminder that no civilization, no matter how advanced or formidable, is immune to the darker facets of human nature. While the Vikings are celebrated for their exploratory zeal, martial prowess, and cultural contributions, it's essential to view their history holistically, acknowledging the complexities and contradictions that define any society.

Who were the Vikings?

Today, Scandinavia is known as three separate countries: Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. But back in the 8th to 11th centuries, these three countries were more of a loose region known as Scandinavia. The people of Scandinavia were followers of the Old Norse religion and were recognized throughout Europe under the banner ‘Norsemen, or the now more popular Vikings.

Scandinavian society consisted of loosely connected tribes and petty kingdoms of Vikings scattered throughout the three regions amidst large areas of uninhabited land. As people most famous for their seafaring adventures and terrifying raids across Europe, it's no surprise that, like many other societies, the Vikings regularly took not only goods from the places they raided but people too, making them a slave-reliant society.

Forgotten History of the Ancient Picts

The Picts were a people of northern Scotland who are defined as a "confederation of tribal units whose political motivations derived from a need to ally against common enemies."

They were not a single tribe, nor necessarily a single people, although it is thought that they came originally from Scandinavia as a cohesive group. Since they left no written record of their history, what is known of them comes from later Roman and Scottish writers and from images the Picts themselves carved on stones.

They are first mentioned as "Picts" by the Roman writer Eumenius in 297 CE, who referred to the tribes of Northern Britain as "Picti" ("the painted ones"), ostensibly because of their habit of painting their bodies with dye. This origin of their name has been contested by modern scholarship, however, and it is probable they referred to themselves as some form of "Pecht", the word for "the ancestors". They were referenced earlier by Tacitus who referred to them as "Caledonians" which was the name of only one tribe.

The Picts held their territory against the invading Romans in a number of engagements and, although they were defeated in battle, they won the war; Scotland holds the distinction of never falling to the invading armies of Rome, even though the Romans attempted conquest numerous times. The Picts exist in the written record from their first mention in 297 CE until c. 900 CE, when no further mention is made of them. As modern scholars point out, their absence from written history does not mean that they mysteriously vanished or were conquered by the Scots and annihilated; it simply means no more was written about them as they merged with the southern Scots culture, who already had a written history by that time, and the two histories became one from then on.

The Cosmic Significance of Stonehenge: Decoding the Alignments of the Standing Stones

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EDITOR GROUP

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There has always been a lot of speculation about the stones at Stonehenge. Wiltshire, England, is home to a collection of massive standing stones that have fascinated visitors for millennia, spawning countless myths and legends about their history and function. There are still many mysteries surrounding the stones that have yet to be solved, adding to the monument's mystique and sense of mystery.

The mystery surrounding its beginnings is one of Stonehenge's most fascinating features. A wide variety of explanations have been proposed for how the stones came to be where they are now, from human ingenuity and cooperation to supernatural forces and extraterrestrial intervention. Some theorize that the stones were placed by ancient druids or extraterrestrials, while others believe they were transported by boat from Wales and then raised into place using simple technology. The story's complexity and intensity are heightened by the fact that the truth is concealed.

The reason why Stonehenge was built is another mystery. Many scholars think the structure had spiritual or religious significance, while others think it was a calendar, an observatory, or a place of healing. Some have speculated that Stonehenge served astronomical purposes due to the stones' alignment with the solstices, but the significance of this alignment is still up for debate.

Stonehenge's allure has been boosted by the mysterious air that has long surrounded it. Many people think the stones are the key to unlocking ancient knowledge and power, which have been associated with magic and the supernatural for centuries. Some people believe that Stonehenge was the hub of a powerful spiritual or mystical network because of its proximity to numerous burial mounds and other sacred sites.

Stonehenge has been the subject of numerous myths and legends, but one thing is certain: it has inspired and amazed people of all ages and walks of life ever since it was built. Whatever your background—scientist, historian, or just plain curious traveler—the stones will provide you with a window into the past and a glimpse into the mysteries of our ancient ancestors.

The true meaning and purpose of Stonehenge, however, continue to elude us despite our best efforts to decipher its mysteries. Whether or not its history will ever be fully understood, one thing is certain: Stonehenge will continue to fascinate and inspire people for years to come.

To sum up, the stones at Stonehenge are a metaphor for the ever-present allure of the unknown. The stones have inspired and challenged us to learn more about this ancient structure for centuries, but they still have secrets to hide. Stonehenge remains one of the most fascinating and puzzling locations on the planet, regardless of whether your interest lies in its scientific, historical, or mystical aspects.

Odin's first citation can be discovered in a Danish artifact

Scandinavian researchers claim to have found the earliest-known mention of the Norse god Odin on a portion of a gold disc that was discovered in western Denmark in 2020.

The inscription appears to refer to a Norse king whose face appears in the center of the pendant, and may indicate he claimed descent from the Norse god Odin. © Arnold Mikkelsen, National Museum of Denmark

At least 150 years earlier than the previous earliest reference, which was on a brooch discovered in southern Germany and dated to the second half of the 6th century, according to Lisbeth Imer, a runologist with the National Museum in Copenhagen, the inscription represented the first conclusive evidence of Odin being worshipped as early as the 5th century.

The disc was found in Denmark as part of a hoard that included enormous medallions the size of saucers and Roman coins fashioned into jewelry, as well as around a kilogram (2.2 pounds) of gold. The Vindelev Hoard was discovered in the village of Vindelev in central Jutland.

Experts believe the treasure was buried 1,500 years ago, either as an homage to the gods or to hide it from adversaries. "He is Odin's man," was written on a golden bracteate, a form of slender, ornate necklace, and was probably referring to an unidentified monarch or ruler.

The inscription ‘He is Odin’s man’ is seen in a round half circle over the head of a figure on a golden bracteate unearthed in Vindelev, Denmark in late 2020. Scientists have identified the oldest-known reference to the Norse god Odin on a gold disc unearthed in western Denmark. © Arnold Mikkelsen, The National Museum of Denmark

Imer remarked, "It's one of the best executed runic inscriptions I've ever seen." Early tribes in northern Europe employed runes as symbols for written communication.

One of the principal gods in Norse mythology, Odin was frequently linked to both poetry and battle.

According to the National Museum in Copenhagen, where the collection unearthed in 2020 is on exhibit, more than 1,000 bracteates have been discovered in northern Europe.

Because runic inscriptions are so uncommon, according to expert on ancient languages Krister Vasshus, "every runic inscription (is) vital to how we understand the past."

It is extraordinary in and of itself when an inscription this long occurs, Vasshus stated. It provides some rather intriguing details about ancient religion, which also reveals something about ancient society.

The Viking Age, generally seen as lasting from 793 to 1066, was a time when Norsemen known as Vikings engaged in extensive raiding, colonization, conquering, and trading across Europe. They made it to North America as well.

Each of the many gods that the Norsemen worshiped had unique traits, flaws, and attributes. Details about the gods' characteristics and behavior have been revealed based on sagas and some rune stones.

According to Imer, "That kind of mythology can take us further and have us reexamine all the other 200 bracteate inscriptions that we know."

A polished and carved phallus discovered in a German cave: One of the earliest depictions of male sexuality ever discovered

According to academics, one of the earliest depictions of male sexuality ever discovered is a polished and carved phallus discovered in a German cave.

The 20 cm long by 3 cm wide stone artifact, which is thought to be roughly 28,000 years old, was discovered buried in the renowned Hohle Fels Cave in the Swabian Jura region, close to Ulm.

14 pieces of siltstone were used to put the ancient "tool" back together.

Because of its lifelike size, scientists speculate that its Ice Age creators may have used it as a sex aid.

It was occasionally employed for knapping flints as well as being a symbolic representation of male genitalia, according to Professor Nicholas Conard of the Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology department at Tübingen University.

He emphasizes, "There are some locations where it has some pretty characteristic scars from that."

There can be little debate about the object's symbolic origins, according to researchers, because of its unusual design and the engraved rings that surround one end.

It is extremely polished and easily recognizable, according to Professor Conard.

The phallus' 13 broken pieces were previously stored by the Tübingen team working at Hohle Fels, but it wasn't until the discovery of a 14th component last year that the team was finally able to put the "jigsaw" back together.

The various stone pieces were all found in a well-dated ash layer in the cave complex linked to current human activity (not their pre-historic "cousins", the Neanderthals).

One of the most amazing excavation sites in central Europe is this one. Thousands of Upper Palaeolithic artifacts have been found at Hohle Fels, which is located in the Ach River Valley and is more than 500 meters above sea level.

Some of them have been genuinely stunning in their intricacy and detail, like a 30,000-year-old mammoth-ivory bird figurine. It is said to be among the oldest examples of a bird in the historical record.

Some slightly older stone artifacts that are plainly phallic emblems are known to science; of special note are those from France and Morocco. Yet, it is quite difficult to find any depictions of male genitalia from this historical period.

Male representations are quite uncommon, according to Professor Conard. "Female images with highly accentuated sexual features are fairly well documented at several sites," he said.

According to the most recent research, the Swabian Jura in southwest Germany was one of the key areas for cultural innovation after modern humans first arrived in Europe approximately 40,000 years ago.

New Study: Ivory Bag Rings Found in Anglo Saxon Cemeteries Came From African Elephants

High class female burials from the late fifth and seventh centuries AD frequently contain bag rings, but the origin of the ivory has been a subject of discussion since the 19th century; walrus and mammoth ivory have also been suggested as alternatives to elephantid ivory.

In Scremby, Lincolnshire, recent excavations of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery turned very elaborate female graves with bag rings. These burials were studied using radiocarbon dating and zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry (ZooMS).

The report states that "Strontium analysis was also used to pinpoint the elephantids' habitation at the time that their tusks formed. We have determined through a multi-methodological approach that the elephants that lived in an area of young volcanic rocks in Africa somewhere between the fifth and sixth century AD provided the ivory for the Scremby bag rings.

A well-preserved ivory bag ring from the an Anglo-Saxon burial at Scremby in Lincolnshire. Photo: ©Hugh Willmott

The ivory most likely came from the Kingdom of Aksum, which is now in modern-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia; the strontium isotope readings point to an area near Eastern Africa.

The emergence of the Aksumite Kingdom in the ancient historical kingdom of Dmt was first mentioned in a trading manual from around the middle of the first century AD called the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea." The Kingdom was centered in Aksum, which was strategically located to rule both the highland and coastal districts of northern Ethiopia, not far from the foot of the Adwa highlands.

The Periplus text claims that the Aksumite Kingdom's position in the world had a significant part in the transcontinental commerce route between Rome and India from the very beginning.

Ivory bag ring in-situ alongside other belt accessories in a woman’s grave at Scremby Photo: ©Hugh Willmott

Up to the 7th century AD, the Kingdom had a significant influence on the supply of ivory. A trade monopoly between the region and the Mediterranean was created at the same time as the early Islamic conquests and expansion into North Africa.

The noticeable decrease in the presence of ivory bag rings in Anglo-Saxon graves dating from the 7th century onwards may have been caused by the disrupted trade routes to the West. Due in part to the re-establishment of Christianity, England also experienced larger changes to burial customs during this period of transition.

Stunning images: 'Dutch Stonehenge' found

There is a mound there that served as a "solar calendar."

Archaeologists in Tiel revealed an "amazing find, unique in the Netherlands": a more than 4,000-year-old "outdoor shrine" where locals gathered to perform sacrifices and ceremonies.

The archaeological monument, known as "Dutch Stonehenge," is the size of three football fields and features a mound that served as a "solar calendar."

Over 60 men's, women's, and children's remains were found inside the mound, which had a diameter of about 20 meters. During the longest and shortest days of the year, sunlight directly entered via its holes.

The excavation, whose findings were revealed today, started in Tiel, which is located about 50 kilometers from Utrecht, in 2017.

"Such a remarkable archeological find! A 4,000-year-old shrine has been discovered by archaeologists in an industrial region. "Tiel's government posted something on its Facebook page. The municipality observed that "it is the first time that such a site has been unearthed in the Netherlands."

Three mounds

Just a few kilometers from the bank of the Vaal, the archaeologists discovered a total of three burial mounds in this region by examining the variations in the soil's chemical makeup.

According to the researchers, the apertures around the main mound served as a solar calendar that "recorded crucial dates such as feasts and harvest."

According to national broadcaster NOS, "this hill is reminiscent of Stonehenge, the famous and enigmatic prehistoric monument in England, where the same phenomenon happens." The size of the other two mounds is smaller. They were all interred for about 800 years.

© Facebook/Gemeente Tiel

An old Mesopotamian bead was also discovered

An astonishing find made by archaeologists was a glass bead that was discovered within a tomb and was later determined to have originated in Mesopotamia, which is modern-day Iraq. 5,000 kilometers were covered by this bead four millennia ago, according to team leader Christian van der Linde.

© Facebook/Gemeente Tiel

According to Stein Arnoldussen of the University of Groningen, "Glass was not manufactured here; the bead was a surprise thing for people because it was composed of an unfamiliar material. According to scientists, the bead is evidence that people from the two places had previously interacted at that time.

This is the Oldest Musical Instrument in the World

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

New Paleolithic musical evidence was discovered during the summer 2008 excavations at the Hohle Fels and Vogelherd sites in the form of one virtually complete bone flute's remains and small, isolated shards from three ivory flutes.

A almost complete bone flute, the most remarkable of these discoveries, was discovered in the basal Aurignacian layers at Hohle Fels Cave in the Ach Valley, 20 kilometers west of Ulm. There were 12 components of the flute. The shards were dispersed over a horizontal region of roughly 10 x 20 cm and a vertical distance of 3 cm. Among all the musical instruments discovered so far in the Swabian caves, this flute is by far the most complete.

The Hohle Fels bone flute's preserved piece is 21.8 cm in length and 8 mm in diameter. Five finger holes remain on the flute. The surfaces of the flute and the bone's structure are in superb shape and provide a wealth of information about how the flute was made. To build what would have been the musician's blowing end of the flute, the creator carved two deep, V-shaped notches into one end of the instrument. This strata has a moderately high find density, including charred bone, a lot of flint knapping waste, worked bone and ivory, bones from horses, reindeer, mammoths, and ibex, as well as bones from other animals. Therefore, we infer that modern humans manufactured the artifacts from the base Aurignacian layers not long after their arrival in the area during a migration up the Danube Corridor. No diagnostic human bones have been recovered in Swabian Aurignacian sediments.

Daniel Maurer/Associated Press

The flute's inventor created the instrument using a griffon vulture's radius (Gyps fulvus). This species produces bones perfect for huge flutes and has wingspan between 230 and 265 cm. The Swabian cave deposits from the Upper Paleolithic period provide evidence of griffon vultures and other vultures.

Two tiny shards of what are almost certainly two ivory flutes from the basal Aurignacian were also discovered during the 2008 excavations at Hohle Fels. The two finds are not from the same instrument, according to the differing diameters of the shards. Another isolated shard of an additional ivory flute was discovered by excavators at Vogelherd in the Lone Valley, 25 km northwest of Ulm.

Making a flute out of bird bone is far simpler technologically than manufacturing one out of ivory. A naturally curved piece of ivory must first be rough shaped along its long axis, split open along one of the bedding plains, carefully hollowed out, and then the holes must be carved. The flute's halves must then be joined together with an airtight seal. It is common to locate single pieces of delicate ivory artifacts given their propensity to break into several pieces.

The 31–40 ka BP range is covered by the ten radiocarbon dates from the basal Aurignacian. The flutes from Hohle Fels precede 35,000 calendar years ago, according to independent controls and available calibrations using various techniques. There is no solid proof that musical instruments existed before 30 ka BP, with the exception of the Swabian Jura caves.

These discoveries show how significant music was to Aurignacian culture in the Ach and Lone valleys in southwest Germany. The majority of these flutes come from archaeological contexts that are rich in lithic and organic objects as well as animal remains that have been hunted and burned. This data implies that people who lived at the locations engaged in a variety of social and cultural musical activities and that flutes were thrown with many other types of occupational waste. In the case of Hohle Fels, the bone flute's placement in a sparse archaeological horizon only 70 cm from a female figurine of a comparable age raises the possibility of a contextual connection between these two discoveries.

The flutes from Hohle Fels, Vogelherd, and earlier discoveries from nearby Geißenklösterle Cave show that the Aurignacian had a musical tradition at the time that modern humans first colonized the Upper Danube region. When early figurative art and other innovations, such as a vast variety of new types of personal adornment and new lithic and organic technology, emerged throughout the Aurignacian, a musical tradition also emerged. However, music appears to have contributed to improved social cohesion and new forms of communication, which indirectly contributed to the demographic expansion of modern humans relative to the culturally more conservative Neanderthal populations. Although the presence of music in the lives of Upper Paleolithic peoples did not directly produce a more effective subsistence economy and greater reproductive success, it does seem to have contributed to these factors.

A huge Rune-stone discovered in Denmark beneath a kitchen floor

The old linoleum kitchen floors of a couple's home in the Danish village of Mosekaer, just outside the city of Randers, were being removed when they stumbled upon a huge rune stone, weighing about 900 kg.

One of the earliest rune stones in Denmark may have been unintentionally discovered by Lene Brandt and her husband, Anders Nielsen, and measured two meters in length and 80 cm in width.

It has been designated a danefæ, or treasure, by the national museum, Nationalmuseet, which is currently putting much effort into figuring out its precise age. The five runes carved on the stone's surface either start or terminate the inscription, depending on the stone's age. The stone's age is important since it determines whether the five runes carved on it begin or end the inscription.

The five runes, which are pronounced "aft bi," mean "after B" in English. Rune stones were frequently created to commemorate notable people, and in this case, the inscription may be referring to a person by the names of Bjrn, Bjarne, or Birk.

The stone most certainly belongs to Denmark's first set of rune stones, making it a very uncommon discovery if the runes indicate the beginning of the text.

Anybody interested in runes should pay special attention to the area near Randers because up to 44 runestones have been found there. Rune, which means "hidden knowledge and wisdom," is an Old Norse word.

Lisbeth Imer, a senior researcher and runologist at the National Museum, estimates that just 10 to 20 rune stones from the 700s–800s have been discovered in Denmark. These early stones are especially interesting because there are only about 200 known Viking Age rune stones dispersed over the country, with the earliest dating to the 700s and the most recent to the 900s. The renowned Jelling Stones, for instance, were built around 965.

The Jelling stones are entire, in their original site, and referenced in historical documents; the Randers rune stone may be older than these, but they cannot be directly compared. In contrast, just a little section of the inscription is still visible on the Randers stone, which is a fragment.

The rune stone is being kept at Museum Stjylland as it waits for additional analysis to establish its age and perhaps shed more light on the history of the Vikings.

Amazing Discovery: A sizable cemetery of Bronze Age burial mounds was discovered near Stonehenge

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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A large cemetery of Bronze Age burial mounds, estimated to be up to 4,400 years old, has been found by archaeologists in advance of a building project less than 10 miles (16 kilometers) from Stonehenge.

The cemetery is home to more than 20 barrows, or round mounds, that were erected on a chalk slope at Harnham, southwest of Salisbury, England, between 2400 and 1500 B.C.

There is no proof that the cemetery was associated with Stonehenge other than the location's closeness to the well-known structure. Yet the barrows were constructed around the same period as some of the main portions of Stonehenge, claims Cotswold Archaeology, the private company in charge of the excavations.

Stonehenge may have served as a community gathering spot, a calendar, or possibly a burial ground, according to several researchers today.

The size of the newly discovered barrows varies, with the smallest being roughly 33 feet (10 meters) broad and the largest being 165 feet (50 meters). Nonetheless, the majority of the barrows are between 20 and 30 meters (65 and 100 feet) across.

According to Alistair Barclay, an archaeologist with Cotswold Archaeology and the site's post-excavation manager, the barrows at the cemetery are arranged in "pairs or small clusters of six or so."

The archaeologists arrived at the location in 2022, and they have now completely excavated five barrows in two locations. The location of the fifth barrow, which may have been obscured by loose material that washed down from an upland area, was unknown. Four of the barrows had previously been identified.

An oval-shaped ditch that surrounded one of the barrows was later replaced by a virtually circular ditch throughout prehistory. Because a mass grave near its center contained the skeletal remains of adults and children, the barrow may have been constructed before the others during the Neolithic period, which ended around 2400 B.C.

The Neolithic highly valued red deer (Cervus elaphus) antlers, which were used to make tools, ceremonial artifacts, and little things like pins and combs, and the oval ditch also cut through the pits of these antlers.

The antlers will now be examined for indications of intentional damage or wear that would suggest they were originally used to produce tools, according to the statement.

In graves among the barrows, the archaeologists have uncovered the bones of nine additional burials as well as three items. Grave goods like clay "beakers," which are recognizable round drinking vessels, were found in certain graves, showing that the deceased belonged to the Bronze Age "Bell Beaker culture," which expanded throughout Britain after about 2450 B.C.

The site may have had signs of an Iron Age agriculture area, according to the Cotswold Archaeology team, which has also discovered indications of later occupants. There are more than 240 pits and postholes in it. The majority of the pits were used to dispose of trash, which was helpful for archaeologists researching how people lived and farmed the area at that period. Some of the holes may have been used to store grain.

The crew also discovered signs of a Saxon building at the location, along with other Anglo-Saxon era items (fifth to 11th centuries A.D.)

Really Unusual Find: Archaeologists Discovered a well-preserved Bronze Sword In Germany

by the Archaeologist Editor Group

During digs in the German city of Nördlingen, a bronze sword that is over 3,000 years old was found by archaeologists. The discovery was made public by the Bavarian State Office for the Preservation of Monuments in a press release. The sword was discovered among the ruins of burials, weapons, and the bodies of a kid, mother, and man. What kind of connections these individuals may have had to one another are yet unknown.

The sword is entirely constructed of bronze and has an octagonal blade and hilt. Due to the hilt being cast on top of the blade, making octagonal swords requires complicated technology (called applied casting).

Photos by Dr. Woidich

During the Bronze Era, decorative artifacts were made using the applied bronze casting method. It entailed layering premium bronze over a less expensive metal or clay core. This made it possible for artisans to produce intricately detailed artifacts without having to use a lot of costly bronze.

A core with the desired shape had to be made, and that core had to be covered in clay. The required pattern was then carved out of this clay, producing a negative mold. The cut-out pattern was filled with molten bronze as it was poured into the mold, creating a thin coating on top of the core. The bronze piece was taken out of the mold after cooling and hardening, and the clay core was also taken out.

Photos by Dr. Woidich

A vast range of items, including jewelry, weaponry, and everyday items, were made using applied bronze casting. The Mycenaean culture made extensive use of this method, which was particularly well-liked in the eastern Mediterranean. Applied bronze items from this era are represented in museums all around the world.

We can certainly presume that this was a real weapon despite the meticulous craftsmanship and lack of impact marks. A balance that leans more toward stabbing is indicated by the center of gravity at the front of the blade.

Investigative work is being done to determine whether the sword was produced in Bavaria or imported. In the Bronze Age, there are three major distribution hubs for this sort of octagonal sword: one in southern Germany, two in northern Germany, and one in Denmark.

In the north, certain octagonal swords may be genuine imports or the creation of "itinerant craftsmen," while others may be imitations of southern German designs, according to a comparison of casting techniques and embellishment.

The director of the Bavarian State Monument Protection Office, Matthias Pfeil, stated: "In order for our archaeologists to classify this find more properly, the sword and the burial remains must be investigated. Yet we can already state that the situation is extraordinary! Such a find is really rare!"

Etruscans: Italian Civilization Before Ancient Rome

The Etruscans were a fascinating and enigmatic civilization that flourished in central Italy prior to the rise of Rome, from the 8th century BCE until their culture was subsumed into the Roman Empire. They inhabited the region known as Etruria, roughly equivalent to modern Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio. The origins of the Etruscans have been a subject of much scholarly debate, with theories ranging from autochthonous development to migrations from the Near East or the Aegean region.

Etruscan society was complex and highly developed. They were known for their rich mineral resources, particularly iron, which contributed to their wealth and influence in the Mediterranean. Their trade networks were extensive, exchanging goods with Greek and Phoenician civilizations, from whom they also absorbed cultural and artistic influences. This is evident in the similarities between Etruscan and Greek pottery and the adoption of a Greek-styled alphabet that they adapted to their own Etruscan language—a language that remains only partially understood today due to the lack of substantial textual evidence.

Politically, the Etruscans were organized into city-states, much like the Greeks. These cities, such as Tarquinia, Veii, and Cerveteri, were ruled by powerful, hereditary elites. The Etruscan political system is noted for its influence on Rome, particularly the establishment of a republic and the concept of the division of powers. Moreover, several of the Roman kings during the monarchy period were of Etruscan origin, which further embedded Etruscan customs and practices into the foundation of Roman culture.

In terms of religion, the Etruscans were deeply spiritual and had a rich pantheon of gods, with which they again shared some similarities with the Greeks and Romans. They practiced divination and believed in the interpretation of omens. One of their most lasting legacies is the discipline of haruspicy, the reading of entrails, which was adopted by the Romans.

Archaeologically, the Etruscans are best known for their funerary practices, which included elaborate tombs rich in grave goods, wall paintings, and sarcophagi. The tombs provide a wealth of information about Etruscan life, beliefs, and art. They celebrated death as a transition to a different form of life, which is reflected in their joyful and colorful tomb paintings, contrasting with the more somber Greek depictions of the afterlife.

The decline of the Etruscan civilization is attributed to a combination of factors, including internal strife among city-states, resource depletion, and pressure from external forces, particularly the Romans and the Greeks in southern Italy. By the 4th century BCE, many Etruscan cities had fallen to Rome, and by the 1st century BCE, Etruscan cultural identity had largely merged with that of the Roman Empire.

In conclusion, the Etruscans were integral to the tapestry of ancient Italian history. Their legacy is seen in the cultural and political foundations of Rome and in the archaeological remnants that continue to captivate historians and archaeologists. The Etruscans serve as a testament to the cultural dynamism of ancient Italy and remind us of the complex interplay of societies in the Mediterranean basin. Their civilization provides an invaluable perspective on the ancient world, one that challenges the traditional Greco-Roman narrative and enriches our understanding of pre-Roman Italy.

What happened when the Vikings met indigenous Americans?

"In this video, we explore the story of Leif Erikson and his journey to North America. As the son of the famous Norse explorer Erik the Red, Leif inherited a love of adventure and a desire to discover new lands. In the year 1000, he set out with a group of fellow Vikings on a journey that would lead them across the Atlantic and into the unknown.

Early traces of the world-famous foie gras in the land of ancient Egypt

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by Giorgio Pintzas Monzani

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Criticized by many for its production processes, hated by many for its peculiar flavor, and considered by many to be the most prized and delicious food there is: foie gras, it always brings with it ranks of supporters and opponents to every banquet it comes to.

Associated with French cuisine, and historically linked (mistakenly) to Gallic origins and the opulent eras of kings and palaces, foie gras actually traverses human history back millennia, and finds its origins in the Nile swamps, a land of legends, myths, and fascinating stories.

The reality is that the error in attributing the birth of this dish is made by even the most passionate foodies, as it is a paternity that Egypt has never pushed so hard to claim.

Thus, it remains a common mistake, but one that for the most curious must be analyzed historically.

Why does it originate specifically in Egypt?

How and who subsequently imports it into Europe?

How did it come to be famous within "cuisine francaise"?

The civilization of ancient Egypt, throughout its millennia of history, has always been a nucleus of innovation in every sphere, laying the foundation for the great European and African civilizations that flourished later.

Even from the point of view of food preparation and storage, some of the inventions that occurred on the banks of the Nile are still considered innovative and in our case even progenitors of the world of gourmet cuisine.

As introduced earlier, the process of foie gras preparation was first used by the farmers of ancient Egypt, and more specifically by those in the marshy areas of the Nile delta.

Birth unrelated to the world of food

Why this process was started on the animal in order to obtain a fatter liver still divides some historians today.

In addition to the goal of producing a food that was pleasing to the taste, in fact, the Egyptians used the liver of geese, ducks and other animals to produce the first candles known to man as early as around 3,000 b.c.e. by coating dried reed reeds with animal fat.

As for the food, on the other hand, there is evidence of its preparation dating to around 2,500 b.c.e., this thanks to frescoes found in the necropolis at Memphis.

Of course, there are no dates and certainties related to which practice was first implemented, although it is believed that the use of the candle originated first: thus assuming that after using a fatty liver as fuel to illuminate the dark desert nights, man tasted this extraordinary and original product for the palates of the time.

Pharaonic banquets

We have seen how foie gras originated in Egypt, thanks to the numerous presence of these animals in the paludal areas of the Nile and the craftsmanship of Egyptian artisans, despite which it cannot be described as a food on the tables of all inhabitants.

The labor commitment and cost of preparing foie gras was high from the very beginning, causing it to be presented as a niche product from the very beginning.

So if we could go back in time and conduct a documentary on the food of ancient Egypt, we would not find goose or duck liver pâté in the tables of peasants or merchants, but in the majestic banquets held in the imposing palaces of the pharaohs.

We might, in fact, enjoy ancient foie gras in the company of the priests and nobles of this splendid society.

The journey of foie gras to Europe

After analyzing the birth, the question arises.

How did the food arrive on European soil?

The answer lies behind the journey of the first Greek pharaoh in Egypt's history: Alexander the Great.

As we all know, the Macedonian king arrived on the shores of Egypt during his journey to conquer the then known world.

Alexander's army conquered the land almost peacefully, as the Persian empire (which had ruled the Egyptian lands since 525 b.c.e.) surrendered to the Greek forces, and Philip II's son was welcomed as a liberator, so much so that he was crowned pharaoh in 332 b.c.e.

The globalization brought by the Macedonian empire made cultural exchanges between all the conquered territories even more possible: thus the various culinary customs of the various cultures also came into contact, without collision but leading to the birth and discovery of many ingredients and preparations, including even Egyptian foie gras.

In fact, this increase in food exchange made possible the discovery of the product in the Greek peninsula as well.

The arrival of foie gras in Rome

The fall of the Macedonian empire by the hands of the Roman army, first with its defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 B.C. and later with its annexation to the Roman republic in 148 B.C., indelibly marked the history of Europe.

Although Roman policy toward the Greek territories was filled with contempt and exploitation, the empire's intellectuals and wealthy looked upon Hellenic culture with great admiration and respect, which fostered the "Greekization" of many cultural aspects of the then capital of the world.

The Roman poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus in one of his epistles wrote, "Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit," meaning that the crude and fierce conqueror, subdued the Greeks with arms, but the Greeks with letters and art civilized Rome and the whole of the then empire.

The increase then economic and mercantile exchanges between the two territories, now under the same reign, were fortified and increased exponentially.

It can therefore be assumed that the product whose history we are tracing came into close contact with the Roman empire at this time.

Certainly even earlier Rome was aware of the Greek culinary culture, but as mentioned above, goose fatty liver never represented an everyday food, but rather a whim and glitz of the rich in the palace.

And it is precisely during this period that it may have arrived in the empire's market.

A detail that reinforces this theory of ours, lies behind the figure of Marcus Gavius Apicius, the most important gastronome, cook, and writer that antiquity has ever seen.

An almost mythological figure in fact, given the paucity of information about his personal life, according to many a figure to whom cookbooks written by many different authors are credited, a kind of gastronomic deity.

Apicius' foie gras

Marcus Gavius Apicius, at the turn of the first century B.C. and the first century A.D., created real guidelines on feeding birds in order to obtain the best possible foie gras.

Within the collection "De re coquinaria," a bible of gastronomy considered by many to be the greatest gastronomic work in history, Apicius recounts how to sweeten the wild taste of the liver of these birds, it was necessary to feed the animal with figs.

This technique was so revolutionary that it also left an etymological trail behind it; enough to think that the word "ficatum", which means liver in Latin, takes its root from the very fruit that Marcus Gavio used to create his foie gras, the "ficum."

The arrival of the dish in France

As everyone knows, the Roman Empire extended to a great many territories in central Europe, including present-day France, called Gaul at the time.

Thanks to this rule we finally have the arrival of our protagonist in Gallic, French territory.

It was precisely the magnificent technique of the gastronome Apicius that made foie gras the protagonist at all imperial banquets, in every corner of Roman territory.

But how did it become famous in French cuisine in later years?

The reality is that the dish had a dark period after the fall of the Roman Empire, and the use of goose fat was carried on only by European Jewish families.

Until, during the reign of Louis XIV, cooks throughout the kingdom, seeking to impress the king's overweening and vitiated palate resorted to forgotten recipes that would charm royal banquets.

It was at one of the banquets, probably in the palace of Versailles, that a cook decided to prepare foie gras and have the king taste it: delighted by the delicacy and deliciousness of the dish, he declared it the "food of kings," giving it a second life and making it famous throughout the French palaces.

To mention only that in 1778, the governor of Alsace, had his best foie gras tasted by King Louis XVI, who immediately appreciated it, making a gift of 20 gold coins to the court cook: from there, every cook in the French kingdom studied new recipes to astound their sovereigns, making foie gras the most requested dish by the European aristocracy.

Even today the dish is still associated with wealth, power, and splendor; for as we know, history rarely changes.

Why?

Because after all, we are...what we used to eat.

Baby cradled in mother’s arm is oldest infant burial in the Netherlands

Dutch archaeologists have discovered a 6,000-year-old Stone Age burial of a woman with a baby cradled in her arm in the central Netherlands city of Nieuwegein. It is the oldest infant burial ever found in the Netherlands.

Nieuwegein is rich with archaeological material from the Swifterbant culture, a Neolithic-era culture who transitioned from hunter-gathering to cattle farming in settlements along the riverbanks and wetlands of what are today the Netherlands between 5300 and 3400 B.C.

An abundance of Swifterbant artifacts and remains, about 136,000 of them (far more than were discovered at the type site in Swifterbant, Flevoland province), have been found under six and a half feet of clay and peat at Nieuwegein’s Het Klooster business park. Artifacts include hundreds of pieces of flint, a grindstone worn to a smooth surface by the second grinding stone used the mill grains and cereals, a striking jet pendant, animal bone chisels and earthenware pottery. The clay and peat have kept the objects and remains in an unusually good state of preservation for thousands of years. One of the pottery vessels still had a layer of food in it.

They also discovered four skeletons which they cut out of the clay en bloc and transported to the Leiden laboratory of RAAP Archaeological Consultancy for careful excavation. One of them was the skeleton of a young adult woman who was 20-30 years old at time of death. When the remains were first unearthed, archaeologists didn’t realize they’d just found the oldest infant burial in the Netherlands. They didn’t realize it was an infant burial period. There was no osteological material immediately visible pointing to the presence of a baby buried with the young woman. It was the woman’s right arm bent at a 90 degree angle with her elbow out that suggested to archaeologists there was something anomalous in that spot. The Swifterbant culture buried their dead with their legs outstretched and arms straight by their sides.

When the remains were excavated in the lab, archaeologists discovered small bone fragments in the crook of the woman’s right arm: pieces of the clavicles, skull, a leg bone, a mandible complete with milk teeth. The teeth were so small they could have belonged to a newborn (there are teethlets in their wee jaws, they just haven’t erupted yet) or a baby up to six months old.

“It really makes an impression when you find little baby teeth buried in clay for 6,000 years and see how similar they are to all those milk teeth that are kept in matchboxes by parents everywhere!” [Dutch broadcaster] NOS quotes [project leader Helle] Molthof as saying.

This is an exceptionally rare discovery. Infants have such soft bones that they disintegrate within months of burial. The waterlogged conditions of this burial, the thick alluvial clay deposits and the peat, preserved these fragile remains for 6,000 years.

The archaeological team hopes to determine whether the adult woman and the baby she was laid to rest cradling are, as one would suspect, mother and child, using DNA analysis.

DNA testing will have to determine whether the woman is the baby’s mother, although there seems to be little doubt that she is, and the sex of the baby. The archaeologists hope the find will tell them more about the burial ceremonies of the Swifterbant people. “We know how they lived, what sort of food they ate, what their houses were like but we don’t know very much yet about how they buried their dead and what happened to the children,” Molthof told the broadcaster.

Isotope analysis will have to show if the woman was born in the area or whether she travelled there at a later date.